International taxation
Выбери формат для чтения
Загружаем конспект в формате pdf
Это займет всего пару минут! А пока ты можешь прочитать работу в формате Word 👇
International Taxation, part 3 of 3
15.01.2021
International
Taxation (part#3)
Borisov Oleg,
PhD, associate professor,
Department of Taxes and Tax Administration
Multinational enterprise’s tax strategy
• A first step in devising a global tax strategy and plan is to (1) make an
assessment of the MNE's ETR relative to its peers, or similar
companies, and (2) evaluate the factors driving the enterprise's
profit and related tax burden
Profit and tax drivers
• The appropriate benchmarks are typically ETR and cash tax rate.
FINANCIAL
PROFIT
DRIVERS
• relate to financial risk
• include the return on inventory risks, accounts receivable
risks, warranty risks, foreign exchange risks, the return from
internal deployment of capital and other income-producing
assets (e.g. intangibles)
• negative tax rate drivers are intangible profits in high-tax
jurisdictions and capital deployed in high-tax jurisdictions
FUNCTIONAL
PROFIT
DRIVERS
• relate to the critical business functions of the company and
where those functions take place
• accrue from the physical functions of the company such as
manufacturing, distribution, marketing, sales, services and
R&D
• negative tax rate driver is establishing and maintaining core
functions and the related risk in high-tax jurisdictions
Borisov O.I., oborisov@fa.ru
1
International Taxation, part 3 of 3
15.01.2021
Key Triggers
Drivers
BUSINESS DRIVERS
Profitable growth
Globalization
Better customer service
Lower costs
Shareholder value
TAX DRIVERS
High domestic effective tax rates
Transfer pricing audits
Tax Incentives
More aggressive tax authorities
Trapped tax losses
Actions
Benefits
Centralization of
planning and mgmt
Lower effective
tax rate
Shared services
Less transfer
pricing risk
Integrated supply
chain management
More stable
effective tax rate
Global/regional
business units
Higher earnings
Improved cash flow
Alignment of tax &
business structure
Centralized
Tax Structure
Optimized
supply chains
Introduction to International Tax Planning
International Tax Planning – a regular, legal and legitimate
use of existing tax provisions with the objective of minimizing
the overall tax burden (“acceptable tax avoidance”)
SUBSTANTIVE TAX PLANNING
Aggressive tax planning – OECD
Action Plan on Base Erosion and
Profit Shifting (BEPS)
FORMAL TAX PLANNING
seeks to change substantially an economic
activity or give it up entirely to save taxes
seeks to keep the tax on a given structure of
economic activity as low as possible
has a negative impact on both investment
and employment
reduces tax revenues and has no impact on
the level of investment
Example: restructuring of assets or whole
production parts to a lower taxed foreign
country without releasing hidden reserves
Example: debt financing of subsidiaries
located in high-taxed countries in order to
benefit from the deductibility of interest
payments from taxable income in the source
state
Borisov O.I., oborisov@fa.ru
2
International Taxation, part 3 of 3
15.01.2021
Introduction to International Tax Planning
International Tax Planning can lead to
TEMPORARY TAX SAVINGS
PERMANENT TAX SAVINGS
only postpone tax payments to future
periods and follow from a deferral of taxable
income: the longer the period of deferral, the
greater is the benefit of the tax planning
reduce the overall tax burden of the
international investor so that tax
payments are reduced or completely
avoided
Examples: the retention of profits at the level
of a foreign subsidiary or the high
depreciation rates available under domestic
tax law for certain assets
Examples: the permanent use of a lower
foreign tax rate or ‘white income’ which
is taxed in neither state of residence nor
of source
Example
The manufacturing company X has the following financial key data:
- sales = EUR 1,000 Mio
- profit before taxes = 10% of sales = EUR 100 Mio
- outstanding shares = 20 Mio
The relevant tax rate is 30% profit after taxes = EUR 70 Mio.
𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑒 =
𝐸𝑈𝑅 70,000,000
= 𝐸𝑈𝑅 3,5
𝐸𝑈𝑅 20,000,000
In order to increase the EPS ratio by EUR 0,25 to EUR 3,75 (which equals 7,14%),
several alternatives exist:
sales can be increased by EUR 71,4 Mio
(and thus profits by EUR 7,14 Mio):
𝐸𝑃𝑆 =
𝐸𝑈𝑅 107,140,000 × (1 − 30%)
=
𝐸𝑈𝑅 20,000,000
= 𝐸𝑈𝑅 3,75
Borisov O.I., oborisov@fa.ru
the relevant tax rate is reduced by 5% to 25%:
𝐸𝑃𝑆 =
𝐸𝑈𝑅 100,000,000 × (1 − 25%)
=
𝐸𝑈𝑅 20,000,000
= 𝐸𝑈𝑅 3,75
3
International Taxation, part 3 of 3
15.01.2021
Main objective of international tax planning
MAIN OBJECTIVE OF
INTERNATIONAL TAX PLANNING
AVOIDING OR
REDUCTION OF
DOUBLE TAXATION
AVOIDING OR REDUCTION
OF SINGLE TAXATION
NEGATIVE TAXATION
depends on the effective
application of the tax
relief method in the state
of residence (the credit or
the exemption method)
the goal is ‘(double) nontaxation’ whereby neither the
state of residence nor that of
source levy any taxes on the
taxpayer
Examples: the
installment of ‘mixer
companies’, use of
reduced withholding
taxes on dividends,
interest payments and
royalties, the application
of cross-border loss
compensation
Examples: (1) the use of
international tax rate
differences, tax-efficient profit
distributions; (2) avoidance of
taxable transfers of assets, the
avoidance of taxable intragroup transactions and
transaction taxes, the taxefficient use of transfer pricing
implies a tax refund
higher than the tax
previously paid by the
multinational investor
Example of Negative taxation (1)
The parent company X, resident in country A, has a foreign subsidiary in country B completely financed by
equity.
The foreign subsidiary earns a pre-tax profit of 100 which is distributed as dividend to X
To refinance the equity contribution, X takes up a loan lending to tax deductible interest payments of 80
The relevant tax rate in country A is 40%, in country B – 20%. There are no withholding taxes.
(i) Country A exempts foreign dividends from taxation at corporate level
(ii) Country A applies the credit method on dividend income or deductible interest is allocated to country B
Tax
Net
Income
Total
Tax
(i) Exemption in A
B (CIT 20%)
100
-20
80
-20
A (CIT 40%)
-80
+32
-48
+32
Total
+12
(ii) Credit in A
B (CIT 20%)
100
-20
80
-20
A (CIT 40%)
(100-80)=20
(8-8)=0
Total
Borisov O.I., oborisov@fa.ru
-20
Country A
Parent
company X
loan
interest
80
dividend
80
Taxable
Profit
Subsidiary
company
income
100
Country B
4
International Taxation, part 3 of 3
15.01.2021
Example of Negative taxation (2)
The parent company X, resident in country A, has a foreign subsidiary in country B completely financed
by equity.
The foreign subsidiary earns a pre-tax profit of 100 which is distributed as dividend to X
Subsidiary takes up a loan lending to tax deductible interest payments of 80
The relevant tax rate in country A is 40%, in country B – 20%.
Country A applies. There are no withholding taxes.
Taxable
Profit
Tax
Net
Income
Total
Tax
B (CIT 20%)
(100-80)=20
-4
16
-4
A (CIT 40%)
Country A
Parent
company X
Total
dividend
16
Exemption in A
-4
Credit in A
B (CIT 20%)
(100-80)=20
-4
16
-4
A (CIT 40%)
20
(-8+4)=-4
12
-4
Total
-8
Subsidiary
company
Country B
loan
interest 80
income 100
Integrated global structure
Borisov O.I., oborisov@fa.ru
5
International Taxation, part 3 of 3
15.01.2021
Tax avoidance and abusive practices
Tax avoidance is the circumvention of a taxing rule resulting from a friction between
form and substance that unduly prevents the application of such rule.
Tax avoidance can also occur in the form of undue entitlement to a preferential
treatment, tax advantage or exemption
Three elements characterize tax avoidance:
1.
2.
3.
Friction between form and substance to obtain tax advantage (causal link with
internal inconsistency)
Purely artificial transactions lacking valid economic reasons
Intention to avoid tax duly reflected in objective elements
Generally tax avoidance reflects the existence of abusive practices.
However, its actual positive legal dimension partly depends on how a legal order
reacts to it
Borisov O.I., oborisov@fa.ru
6
International Taxation, part 3 of 3
15.01.2021
Blurred line between Tax Evasion
and Tax Avoidance
Tax Avoidance
•
•
•
•
Legal
Freedom versus morality
International planning
opportunities
(harmful) tax competition
Tax Evasion
•
•
•
Illegal: Tax Fraud
Criminal offence
Mounting international exchange
of information and coordination
From a conceptual perspective, tax avoidance
IS
Abuse of tax law or fraus legis
Since the taxpayer escapes the
application of a taxing rule by
exploiting the friction between
form and substance
Borisov O.I., oborisov@fa.ru
IS NOT
Sham
Since the taxpayer does not
generate an appearance (which
would lead to tax evasion), but an
actual substance.
7
International Taxation, part 3 of 3
15.01.2021
Tax avoidance and aggressive tax planning
Tax avoidance
Aggressive tax planning
Three elements:
Three elements:
1.
Friction between form and substance
to obtain tax advantage (causal link
with internal inconsistency)
2.
Purely artificial transactions lacking
valid economic reasons
1. Exploitation of cross-border tax
disparities to obtain bilateral tax
advantages (causal link with external
inconsistency)
3.
Intention to avoid tax duly reflected in
objective elements
Generally reflecting existence of abusive
practices
2. Misalignment between taxing powers
and value creation
3. Unintended tax advantages from
double non-taxation
No abusive practice in one tax system
Global Tax Avoidance Damage
Borisov O.I., oborisov@fa.ru
8
International Taxation, part 3 of 3
15.01.2021
State Aid and Tax Avoidance (1)
•
EU Commission: Luxembourg has granted selective tax
advantages to Fiat's financing company and the
Netherlands to Starbucks' coffee roasting company. A tax
ruling issued by the respective national tax authority
artificially lowered the tax paid by the company.
•
Tax rulings as such are perfectly legal. They are comfort
letters issued by tax authorities to give a company clarity
on how its corporate tax will be calculated or on the use
of special tax provisions.
•
The two tax rulings endorsed artificial and complex
methods to establish taxable profits for the companies.
They do not reflect economic reality. This is done by
setting prices for goods and services sold between
companies of the Fiat and Starbucks groups (so-called
"transfer prices") that do not correspond to market
conditions.
•
As a result, most of the profits of Starbucks' coffee
roasting company are shifted abroad, where they are also
not taxed, and Fiat's financing company only paid taxes
on underestimated profits.
•
This is illegal under EU state aid rules: Tax rulings cannot use methodologies, no matter
how complex, to establish transfer prices with no economic justification and which
unduly shift profits to reduce the taxes paid by the company. It would give that company
an unfair competitive advantage over other companies (typically SMEs) that are taxed on
their actual profits because they pay market prices for the goods and services they use.
State Aid and Tax Avoidance (2)
Borisov O.I., oborisov@fa.ru
9
International Taxation, part 3 of 3
15.01.2021
State Aid and Tax Avoidance (3)
State Aid and Tax Avoidance (4)
A
B
Borisov O.I., oborisov@fa.ru
10
International Taxation, part 3 of 3
15.01.2021
State Aid and Tax Avoidance (5)
•
•
Tax structure allowed McDonald's to divert revenue for years, costing European countries over
€1 billion in lost taxes between 2009 and 2013
Between 2009 and 2013, the Luxembourg-based structure, which employs 13 people, registered
a cumulative revenue of €3,7 billion, on which it reported a meager €16 million in tax.
State Aid and Tax Avoidance (6)
• Luxembourg gave illegal tax benefits to ENGIEgroup.
• On certain profits in Lux, Engie paid an effective corporate tax rate of 0,3%.
• Unpaid taxes of €120 mio has to be paid and tax to be paid in the future
Borisov O.I., oborisov@fa.ru
11
International Taxation, part 3 of 3
15.01.2021
State Aid and Tax Avoidance (7)
• IKEA has received illegal tax benefits and an impermissible leg up on the
competition in the Netherlands
• Ikea paid a significant part of its revenue as an annual licence fee to a
Luxembourg subsidiary, which owned some of the intellectual property rights
State Aid and Tax Avoidance (8)
•
•
France’s fifth-largest company, utility Engie, is accused of having dodged at least €300
million in corporate taxes by employing a complex system of subsidiaries and taking
advantage of an tax agreement brokered with the government of Luxembourg
The group paid no tax at all on profits of €1.1 billion ($1.17 billion) between 2011 and
2015
Borisov O.I., oborisov@fa.ru
12
International Taxation, part 3 of 3
15.01.2021
‘Double Irish Dutch Sandwich’
Borisov O.I., oborisov@fa.ru
13
International Taxation, part 3 of 3
15.01.2021
Google: structure
Google Inc.
① IP
transfer
USA
⑧ dividends
(deferred)
BM
Google Ireland
Holdings (*)
⑦ royalties
② license
Google NL
Holding B.V.
IE
NL
③ sublicense
Google Ireland Ltd.
④ online promotion
clients
⑥ royalties
⑤ fees
DE
*) The Google Ireland Holdings was founded in Ireland, but the place of management is in Bermuda.
Google: tax avoidance
• USA:
• Google Inc.: US CIT on dividends (but deferral in Bermuda) and
no CFC taxation (active income from Irish subsidiaries)
• Google Ireland Holdings: intangible assets transferred via cost sharing arrangement
(APA) from the USA to Bermuda (no super royalty rule)
• Google Ireland Ltd. / Google NL Holding B.V.:
• no tax resident (both companies are not incorporated in the USA)
• no CFC taxation (check-the-box-election active revenues from Irish subs)
• Bermuda: Google Ireland Holdings: no CIT and no withholding tax (tax haven)
• Netherlands:
• Google Ireland Holdings: no withholding tax on royalties outgoing (local tax code)
• Google NL Holding B.V.: ruling on royalty net income (handling fee)
• Ireland:
• Google Ireland Holdings: no tax resident (no place of management in Ireland)
• Google NL Holding B.V.: no withholding tax (Council Directive 2003/49/EC)
Google Ireland Ltd.: CIT = 12,5%, but low net income (high TP on royalties)
• Germany: Google Ireland Ltd.: no CIT (no permanent establishment)
Borisov O.I., oborisov@fa.ru
14
International Taxation, part 3 of 3
15.01.2021
Apple: Structure
Apple Inc.
IE
Apple „OpCo“
International
① IP
transfer
Apple Sales
International
USA
TW
Apple OpCo
Europe
Foxconn
DE
Apple Distribution Int.
② sale
clients
Apple Retail
Holding Europe
③ sale
Apple Retail
Germany
④ sale
Apple: tax avoidance
• USA:
• Apple Inc.:
• no CFC taxation (active income from disregarded “Irish” sub-subsidiaries)
• Apple OpCo International / Apple OpCo Europe / Apple Sales International:
• incorporated in IE, but have no tax residency in Ireland (no employees, no PE) and
in the USA (ghost company) – board meetings in CA!
• intangible assets transferred via cost sharing arrangement from the USA
• no CFC taxation (check-the-box-election sales income of Irish subsidiaries is
active income of AOI)
• Ireland:
• Apple OpCo International / Apple OpCo Europe / Apple Sales International:
• subject to non-resident taxation, but special tax rate of 2%
• Apple Distribution International / Apple Retail Holding Europe:
• tax resident, but low net income (TP: low risk distributor)
• Germany:
Apple Distribution International: no CIT (no permanent establishment)
Apple Retail Germany: tax resident, but low net income (TP: low risk distributor)
• Taiwan: Foxconn: tax resident, but low net income (TP: low risk distributor)
Borisov O.I., oborisov@fa.ru
15
International Taxation, part 3 of 3
15.01.2021
Types of anti-avoidance rules
Anti-avoidance rules (AAR) typically apply by focusing on the substance
of a transaction or arrangement.
When insufficient substance is present, AAR may allow the tax authority
to change the tax result of a transaction or of steps within the transaction
that it finds objectionable.
GENERAL
antiavoidance
rule (GAAR)
ANTIAVOIDANCE
RULES
Borisov O.I., oborisov@fa.ru
a set of broad principles-based rules within
a country’s tax code designed to counteract
the perceived avoidance of tax
a concept within law that provides the taxing
authority a mechanism to deny the tax benefits of
transactions or arrangements believed not to have
any commercial substance or purpose other than to
generate the tax benefit(s) obtained
TARGETED
antiavoidance
rules (TAAR)
many (if not all) of the characteristics of a GAAR
regime but is limited to a specific set or type of
transactions
SPECIFIC
antiavoidance
rules (SAAR)
tax law designed to deal with particular
transactions of concern
16
International Taxation, part 3 of 3
15.01.2021
General anti-avoidance rules
Domestic tax systems contain
general anti-avoidance rules
in the form of an express provision
incorporated into the tax code
in the form of a general principle of
abuse of law, generally developed
by local judges in domestic case law
the development of the
local economy
the know-how of the
local tax authorities
the approach of
domestic courts
vital factors
in order
to evaluate
the risk incurred
by multinational
groups
General
anti-avoidance rules
Objectives of a GAAR
Codify judicial rulings on what governments feel constitutes avoidance
or abuse
Target transactions that may comply with a technical interpretation of the
law but that generate tax benefits the government considers to be
unintended or inconsistent with the spirit of the law
Define what constitutes an artificial scheme, transaction or arrangement
that has been concocted to extract a tax benefit
Apply some type of substance or purpose test as a filter for determining
whether a transaction is legitimate
Provide the tax authority a mechanism to recharacterize or disregard
a transaction or otherwise eliminate the tax benefits claimed
Allow the imposition of special assessments, penalties and interest
where violations are determined
Provide the taxpayer with reconstructive relief so they pay only the new
tax or penalties assessed by the authority (i.e., they avoid domestic
double taxation on a transaction), although this would not necessarily
provide relief in a cross-border situation
Borisov O.I., oborisov@fa.ru
17
International Taxation, part 3 of 3
15.01.2021
Classification of anti-avoidance clauses
Substance over form and factual recharacterisation: Cyprus, Czech
Republic, Estonia, Finland, Hungary, Netherlands, Poland, Romania,
Slovakia, Sweden
Abuse of law GAAR: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Denmark, France,
Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Malta, Portugal, Spain, UK
Fraus legis GAAR: Croatia, Netherlands (judicial + richtige heffing)
No GAAR, but application of civil law: Latvia, Lithuania, Slovenia
Judicial approach prevailing: France, Netherlands
GAAR/SAAR in Russian tax legislation
• Russian doesn’t have a GAAR, but it does have a series of SAAR in
specific areas of legislation that aim to prevent tax avoidance.
• The Russian tax authorities apply the concept of “unjustified tax
benefit”
UNJUSTIFIED TAX BENEFIT – a reduction of the amount of
a tax liability resulting from a reduction of the tax base, the
receipt of a tax deduction or tax concession (incentive) or the
application of a lower tax rate, and the receipt of a right to a
refund (offset) or reimbursement of tax from the budget
• Substance-over-form principle
• “Mala fide taxpayer” concept
• “Unjustified tax benefit” concept
Borisov O.I., oborisov@fa.ru
apply to companies, not to individuals
18
International Taxation, part 3 of 3
15.01.2021
General anti-avoidance rules
General anti-avoidance rules are domestic rules that allow the tax
authorities to recharacterize a transaction or a series of transactions
that have been entered with the purpose of obtaining undue tax benefits
A deduction, relief, rebate or refund
A reduction, avoidance or deferral of income
A reduction, avoidance or deferral of tax or other amount
that would be payable but for a tax treaty
tax benefit
An increase in a deduction, rebate or refund of tax or
other amount
An increase in a refund of tax or other amount as a result
of a tax treaty
A reduction in tax base, including an increase in loss, in
the relevant financial year or any other financial year
Unjustified tax savings concept
Taxpayer’s right to achieve tax savings is recognized
• presumption of good faith of taxpayers and economical
justification of taxpayer’s actions
• burden of proof lies with the tax authorities
• possibility of receiving the same economic results, but with
lesser tax benefits … is not a basis for finding tax benefits
unjustified
On the other hand:
• tax savings are unjustified – if received with no connection to
actual economic activities or as the only/main “business goal”
• if the form of transaction differs from the substance,
taxpayer’s rights and obligations should be determined based
on the actual economic substance
Can treaty benefits be questioned based on “tax savings”
doctrine?
Borisov O.I., oborisov@fa.ru
19
International Taxation, part 3 of 3
15.01.2021
Purpose test
In the UNITED STATES, the economic substance doctrine
provides that a transaction will be treated as not having
economic substance unless the taxpayer can show that:
In AUSTRALIA, the test requires an objective analysis of
eight factors to determine whether the scheme was entered
into or carried out for the “dominant purpose” of enabling the
taxpayer to obtain the tax benefit(s). Those factors include:
The transaction changes in a meaningful way (apart from
federal income tax effects) the taxpayer’s economic position
i. Manner in which the scheme was carried out
The taxpayer has a substantial purpose (apart from federal
income tax effects) for entering into the transaction
ii. Form and substance of the scheme
iii. Timing of the scheme and length/duration of the scheme
iv. The result that would otherwise be achieved by the
scheme
v. Change in financial position of the taxpayer as a result of
the scheme
vi. Any change in the financial position of any person
connected with the relevant taxpayer as a result of the
scheme
vii. Any other consequences for the relevant taxpayer or any
person referred in part vi. above, as a result of the scheme
being carried out
viii. The nature of any connection between the relevant
taxpayer and any person referred to in point vi.
Upon whom is the burden of proof?
Tax authority
Taxpayer
Belgium
France
Italy
Japan
Mexico
The Netherlands
India
United Kingdom
Australia
Brazil
China
Ireland
RUSSIA
Shared
Borisov O.I., oborisov@fa.ru
Singapore
South Korea
Sweden
United States
Canada
Germany
Indonesia
Poland
South Africa
Switzerland
Turkey
20
International Taxation, part 3 of 3
15.01.2021
Avoidance of Non-taxation
Actions to avoid non-taxation
UNILATERAL ACTIONS
- CFC-legislation
- Activity clauses
- Thin capitalization rules
- Anti-treaty shopping-/anti-directive
shopping-/anti-abuse provisions
- Subject-to-tax-/switch-over-clauses
* Residence and/or source
country;
* Avoidance of profit shifting
Non-taxation is said to occur if there
are unjustified tax benefits, either
from exploiting international tax rate
differentials without matching the
economic interests, or from taking
advantage of a miss match of tax
laws leading to a qualification conflict
BILATERAL ACTIONS
- Activity clauses
- Subject-to-tax-/switch-over clauses
- Exchange of information provision
- Anti-treaty-shopping-provisions (e.g.
LOB-clause in Art.28 US-DE TT)
Avoidance of qualification conflicts
by incongruent profit apportionment
of the contracting states
Other SAARs
ANTI-DEBT CREATION RULES
• Several countries have rules to prevent the introduction of leverage into the country concerned through an
intragroup transfer of a shareholding.
• Example: Under German domestic law, interest expense on a borrowing taken out from a related party to finance
the purchase of shares from the same or another related party are not deductible for tax purposes.
• Example: French domestic law prevents the deductibility of interest expenses where a French company
purchases another French company and the acquired company then joins the acquirer's consolidated tax group.
ANTI-DUAL RESIDENT AND ANTI-HYBRID RULES
• Several states have rules to prevent double utilization of losses, often through dual resident companies.
• Example: The United States has similar rules that, broadly, prevent the deductibility of losses in the United States
when the same losses have already been deducted in another jurisdiction.
• Some states have introduced rules to counter the use of hybrid instruments and hybrid entities. Specifically, the
United Kingdom has introduced a complex set of rules, which, inter alia, can deny relief for any expense arising
as part of a scheme involving hybrid entities or hybrid instruments.
ANTI-TAX HAVEN RULES
• Several domestic tax systems contain legislation to prevent the use of tax haven jurisdictions.
• Specifically, costs and expenses are not deductible if they arise from transactions with entities located in a listed
tax haven. The deduction is generally allowed if the resident company can prove that the non-resident company
actually and mostly carries on a business activity and/or that the transactions have a business purpose and have
in fact been concluded. Examples of rules of this type can be found in Italy and Spain.
• Along the same lines, some countries impose higher withholding taxes when payments (generally in the form of
dividends, interest, royalties or service fees) are made to entities located in tax havens.
Borisov O.I., oborisov@fa.ru
21
International Taxation, part 3 of 3
15.01.2021
OECD’s approach to the concept of the beneficial owner
The term «beneficial owner» isn’t to be used in a narrow
technical sense, rather, it should be understood in light of the
object and purposes of the Convention, including the prevention of
fiscal evasion and avoidance.
(§ 12 par. 2 Comments to Art. 10 OECD Model Convention).
OECD is still reviewing the wording of the criteria for
determining the beneficial owner, that specifies the importance of
this issue.
Borisov O.I., oborisov@fa.ru
22
International Taxation, part 3 of 3
Borisov O.I., oborisov@fa.ru
15.01.2021
23
International Taxation, part 3 of 3
15.01.2021
The Finance Ministry Approach to defining the beneficial owner
The term “factual recipient of the income" should be understood:
- not in a narrow technical sense;
- In light of the basic principles of contracts: prevention of fiscal evasion and
avoidance, substance-over-form approach.
Foreign company is to be treated as the beneficial owner of
income provided the following conditions are met:
1) there is legal basis to receive an income, verified by the civil
contracts;
2) a foreign recipient does not act as an agent or nominee on behalf of
another person who actually benefits from the income;
3) a foreign recipient is a direct recipient of the income, i.e.
«economically or factually has the power to control the attribution of the
income».
(The Letters of the Finance Ministry dated September 26, 2012,
№ 03-08-05 (interest); dated December 30,.2011, № 03-08-13 / 1 (Eurobonds);
dated October 15,.2007, № 03-08-05 (income from trust management);
dated April 21, 2006, № 03-08-02 (income American Depositary Receipt)).
Borisov O.I., oborisov@fa.ru
24
International Taxation, part 3 of 3
Borisov O.I., oborisov@fa.ru
15.01.2021
25
International Taxation, part 3 of 3
Borisov O.I., oborisov@fa.ru
15.01.2021
26
International Taxation, part 3 of 3
15.01.2021
The concept of ”the beneficial owner" is important to
distinguish from the term “beneficial holder" of the company.
The “beneficial owner" means the individual who directly or
indirectly owns or has the power to control it.
(the term is introduced by the law dated June 28, 2013, № 134
–FL, in the Federal Law dated August 07, 2001, No 115-FL "On
countering legalization of proceeds from crime ...")
To date it is not clear how the current laws on the
requirement of disclosing the beneficial owner will relate to the
mechanism of applying the beneficial owner concept, which is
proposed to be introduced into the Russian tax legislation.
The concept of the beneficial owner is one of the main treaty
anti-abuse rules in the world.
The above said makes it clear that the question of
providing a mechanism of this concept application in the
Russian tax legislation is important and difficult to implement.
Example of the Beneficial Ownership Concept
in Treaty Law (article 11 RU-CY TT)
X
WHT = 20%
Financial
intermediary
Tax haven
country
Borisov O.I., oborisov@fa.ru
Cyprus
Securities
WHT = 0%
But:
Art.11 (1) RU-CY TT
Russia
27
International Taxation, part 3 of 3
15.01.2021
Example considering the Implementation of
the Beneficial Ownership Concept
Sole trader B (BS)
Sole trader A (AW)
N-B.V. (NL)
WHT 25%
WHT 25%
WHT 0%
100%
holding
D-GmbH (DE)
Example of a Unilateral Switch-Over Clause
Sole trader A (DE)
Sole trader B (DE)
C-SNC (BE)
Borisov O.I., oborisov@fa.ru
28
International Taxation, part 3 of 3
15.01.2021
Thin capitalisation rules
What is Thin capitalisation:
It is a situation in which a company is
financed through a relatively high level of
debt compared to equity. Thinly capitalized
companies are sometimes referred to as
―highly leveraged or highly geared.
Debt
Equity
Other party
resources (loan)
Own resources
Interest expense is
tax deductible
No tax deduction
on payment of
dividend
Lower tax
incidence on nonresident investor/
lender- Treaty
benefits
Dividend tax
implications might
arise in some
jurisdictions
Why is Thin capitalisation significant:
Country tax rules typically allow a
deduction for interest paid or payable in
arriving at the tax measure of profit. The
higher the level of debt in a company, and
thus amount of interest it pays, the lower
will be its taxable profit.
Aim of framing Thin capitalisation rules : To
limit an entity’s debt-to-equity ratio to
control highly leveraged financing
structures
Borisov O.I., oborisov@fa.ru
29
International Taxation, part 3 of 3
15.01.2021
Different approaches to thin capitalisation
Approaches
Excessive
debt
approach
Earnings
stripping
approach
Method
Arm’s length
approach
Description
• Maximum amount of “allowable” debt - Debt that an
independent lender would be willing to lend to the entity
i.e. the amount of debt that a borrower could borrow from
an arm’s length lender
• Typically considers the specific attributes of the entity in
determining its borrowing capacity (i.e. the amount of debt
that entity would be able to obtain from independent
lenders)
Ratio
approach
• Maximum amount of “allowable” debt – Debt on which
interest may be deducted for tax purposes is established
by a pre-determined ratio, such as the ratio of debt to
equity
Fixed ratio
rule
• Limits entity’s net deductions for interest and payments
economically equivalent to interest to a percentage of its
earnings before interest, taxes, depreciation and
amortization (EBITDA)
Group ratio
rule
• Allows an entity with net interest expense above a
country’s fixed ratio to deduct interest up to the level of
the net interest/EBITDA ratio of its worldwide group
Approaches discussed in action plan 4 (BEPS)
Fixed Ratio
• Limit net interest deduction to a fixed percentage of EBITDA
• The percentage to be somewhere between 10% to 30%
Group Ratio
• Group ratio is to supplement the fixed ratio rule
• Entity with net interest expense above the fixed ratio could be
allowed to deduct such interest up to the interest/EBITDA ratio of
the worldwide group to which it belongs
• The same can also be capped at additional 10% from the fixed ratio
Other
recommendations
• Adopting an equity escape rule which allows interest expense so
long as an entity's Debt : Equity ratio does not exceed that of the
group
• Providing for carry forward and/or carry back of disallowed interest
expense, within limits
• Providing exclusions for interest paid to third party lenders on loans
used to fund public benefit projects
Borisov O.I., oborisov@fa.ru
30
International Taxation, part 3 of 3
15.01.2021
Thin capitalisation in different countries
Jurisdiction
Approach/Method
Canada
Excessive debt
Debt included
Related party debt
Additional information
• Permissible Debt : Equity ratio is 2:1
• Interest paid to related parties, if the interest in
the hands of the recipient is not taxed, is
disallowed
United States
of America
Earning stripping
and excessive debt
Both Internal and
External debt
China
Ratio method
Related party debt
• However, it provides flexibility of the ratio when
the taxpayer is able to justify the high ratio
United
Kingdom
Arms length method
Related party debts
• Focuses on special relationship and whether
the loan would have been accorded had there
been no special relationship
Germany and
Italy
Fixed ratio
All debts
• Limits the deductibility to 30% of EBITDA
India
Fixed ratio
All debts
• Limits the deductibility to 30% of EBITDA
Indonesia
Excessive Debt
All interest bearing
debts and Interest
bearing Trade
Payables
• Permissible Debt : Equity Ratio of 4:1
Malaysia
Fixed ratio
Related party debt
• Limits the deductibility to 20% of EBITDA
• Applicable to corporations having Debt : Equity
ratio exceeding 1.5:1 and when such
corporation has excess interest expense
Thin capitalization rules
• Thin capitalization rules are aimed at disallowing the deduction of
certain interest expenses at the level of the payer, when the debt to
equity ratio of the debtor exceeds certain thresholds.
• Key points to be taken into account when analysing thin capitalization
rules are:
(i) the (subjective and objective) scope of the provisions;
(ii) the determination of the debt to equity ratio;
(iii) the effects of the application of the provisions; and
(iv) the existence of safeguard clauses.
Borisov O.I., oborisov@fa.ru
31
International Taxation, part 3 of 3
15.01.2021
Determining the Existence of Thin Capitalization
(1) FLE has 30% in RLE.
FLE gives a RLE a loan.
(2) FLE has 60% in RLE-1.
RLE-1 has 50% in RLE-2.
FLE gives a loan to RLE-2.
FLE
30%
FLE
FLE
loan
40%
60%
RLE-1
RLE
loan
50%
(4) FLE has more than
25% (directly or indirectly)
in the capital of RLE. It
pledges a guarantee for
repayment of a loan taken
by RLE from any source.
Indirect ownership share is
30% (60% × 50%)
FLE
loan
60%
RLE-1
loan
RLE-2
RLE-2
30%
RLE
(3) FLE has 40% in RLE-1 and
60% in RLE-2.
RLE-1 provides a loan to RLE-2.
Direct ownership of 60% is taken
into consideration and the loan will
prima facie be considered as
controlled. However, an exemption
is available for loans between
RLEs if there are no further loan
relationships with the FLE so it can
be shown that no tax benefit arises.
RLE
Compare the amount of controlled debt
with the amount of equity capital
M=P/K
M – maximum amount of interest that can be considered deductible;
P – overall sum of the amount of interest paid on the particular controlled debt;
C – "capitalization coefficient", is calculated as follows:
K = N / C * S / 3 (12.5)
N – amount of outstanding controlled debt;
C – capitalization of the borrowing organization;
S – share held in the borrowing organization by the lending organization
Borisov O.I., oborisov@fa.ru
32
International Taxation, part 3 of 3
ASSETS
20 000 mln.
15.01.2021
LIABILITIES
debt instruments, всего
incl. the amount of outstanding controlled debt
equity capital
overall sum of the amount of interest
paid on the particular controlled debt
19 000 mln.
16 000 mln.
1 000 mln.
16 000 × 24% ×
28 + 31
= 619,02
366
"capitalization coefficient"
16 000
1
×
= 4,267
1 000 × 30% 12,5
maximum amount of interest that can be
considered deductible
619,02
=145,07
4,267
Borisov O.I., oborisov@fa.ru
33
International Taxation, part 3 of 3
15.01.2021
Typical Structure
Shareholder
Trust
78,5%
21,5%
Holding
company
Other company
100%
BVI company
100%
Company 1
Company 2
50%
50%
Company 3
100%
Russian
company
CFC legislation
• Controlled foreign corporation (CFC) legislations – rules
that empower a state to tax its resident taxpayers on income
derived by foreign entities controlled by them
Resident taxpayers may divert
profits to CFC that are subject to a
favourable tax treatment on the
income received. This allows
taxpayers to defer their tax liability
until the profits of the foreign
company are finally repatriated to
them (dividend/capital gain).
Borisov O.I., oborisov@fa.ru
Domestic tax systems contain rules
that allow the tax authorities to tax
the income derived through the
controlled foreign company at yearend and therefore eliminate the
benefit derived from the deferral
34
International Taxation, part 3 of 3
15.01.2021
How do CFC Rules work?
• When a domestic parent company establishes a CFC in a low-tax country, it relocates
certain activities and resources – and therefore a part of its tax substrate - to the low-tax
country.
• The CFC generates income.
• If the domestic tax authority wants to tax the CFC's income, it can't do so because the
CFC is domiciled in another country.
Foreign Country = e.g.
Domestic Country = e.g.
Switzerland
Germany
•
•
Activities
Resources
Domestic Tax
Authorities
CFC
Domestic Parent Company
Shielding Effect
How do CFC Rules work?
• Only when the CFC distributes its profits to the parent company, the domestic tax
authority can subject these to taxation.
• But because the parent company rules the CFC by definition, it can decide when the
CFC shall distribute its profits. As long as it retains the profits in the CFC, it can
achieve a tax deferral through this primary shielding effect. A tax deferral can get the
domestic parent company an interest gain and a liquidity advantage.
• Under certain circumstances, it can be possible to return the profits to the CFC taxfree in a country of residence. In such a case, the secondary shielding effect takes
effect, whereby the tax deferral achieved by the primary shielding effect is
transformed into a definitive non-taxation.
Foreign Country = e.g.
Domestic Country = e.g.
Switzerland
Germany
Domestic Tax
Authorities
CFC
Domestic Parent Company
Shielding Effect
Borisov O.I., oborisov@fa.ru
35
International Taxation, part 3 of 3
15.01.2021
How do CFC Rules work?
• To prevent this, countries are introducing CFC rules. The CFC regulation cancels the
shielding effect and adds the CFC's profit as a fictional profit to the domestic parent
company's profit already before the actual profit distribution.
• The profit added on can be domestically taxed according to the domestic tax level. That
way, the tax deferral resulting from the shielding effect can be reduced or cancelled.
Foreign Country = e.g.
Domestic Country = e.g.
Switzerland
Germany
Domestic Tax
Authorites
CFC
Domestic Parent Company
Shielding Effect
Tax deferral vs. CFC rules
USA
USA
Inc.
Inc.
EBT
no
dividend
./. 0
CIT
profit
OpCo
active
income
100
EBT
IE
Borisov O.I., oborisov@fa.ru
no
dividend
EBT
./. 35
CIT
+ 12,5
FTC
100
EBT
./. 12,5
CIT
87,5
profit
-22,5
loss
CFC
./. 12,5
CIT
87,5
profit
passive
income
IE
36
International Taxation, part 3 of 3
15.01.2021
Comparison
tax credit method
exemption method
tax deferral
CFC-rules
IE-OpCo
100 EBT
./.
12,5 CIT (IE)
=
87,5 profit
IE-OpCo
100 EBT
./.
12,5 CIT (IE)
=
87,5 profit
IE-OpCo
100 EBT
./.
12,5 CIT (IE)
=
87,5 profit
IE-OpCo
100 EBT
./.
12,5 CIT (IE)
=
87,5 profit
US-Inc.
87,5 EBT=dividend
DE-AG
87,5 EBT=dividend
US-Inc.
US-Inc.
[+
12,5 gross up]
[./.
./.
+
=
35 CIT (US)
12,5 tax credit
65 profit
affiliated group
=
65 profit
./.
=
EBT=dividend
87,5 exemption
method]
./.
CIT (IE)
1,3 CIT (DE)
86,2 profit
=
profit
affiliated group
=
86,2 profit
affiliated group
=
87,5 profit
EBT=dividend
[+
100
./.
+
=
35 CIT (US)
12,5 tax credit
- 22,5 loss
CFC-income]
affiliated group
=
65 profit
How do CFC Rules work? (1)
A «Controlled Foreign Company» is a:
1. Company
2. Domiciled abroad
3. That is being "ruled" by a domestically domiciled corporation
• Also called base- or intermediate company in English usage.
• A company designated as CFC is being accused of having been
established abroad with the sole purpose of obtaining fiscal advantages.
Therefore, CFCs usually meet two other criteria:
4. The CFC is domiciled in a low-tax country
5. And typically pursues a passive activity.
Borisov O.I., oborisov@fa.ru
37
International Taxation, part 3 of 3
15.01.2021
How do CFC Rules work? (2)
• CFC Regulations are unilateral rules of individual states against the migration of
tax substrate, which are applied without mutual national agreement.
• These days, there is a vast, hardly manageable variety of CFC Rules and the
conditions of when an add-back taxation is applied vary heavily:
• In principal, all domestic individuals and legal entities fully liable to tax are possible
tax subject of the CFC Regulations.
• Control: the domestic parent company has to be able to influence the CFC in such a
manner, so that it can determine the time of the profit distribution. According to the
country, various formal and/or factual criteria must be met.
• Low Taxation global or jurisdictional approach
• Passive Activities = Activities that can be easily relocated und therefore exhibit a high
location-flexibility. E.g. Interest-, dividend- and rental income, license earnings and
capital gain. transactional or entity approach
• Some CFC Legislations stipulate exemptions and discharges.
CFC rules
CFC rules can be
classified under two
broad categories
THE DESIGNATED-JURISDICTION
APPROACH
THE EFFECTIVE-TAX-RATE
APPROACH
states restrict their CFC rules to
investments made in certain
jurisdictions that provide general or
specific tax benefits
CFC rules apply to companies that pay
less than a specified effective tax rate
it is possible to apply to a subsidiary
company in a high-tax jurisdiction, if the
system of reliefs and exemptions in the
country of the subsidiary is different from
that in the home country
Borisov O.I., oborisov@fa.ru
38
International Taxation, part 3 of 3
15.01.2021
Russian CFC legislation
Individual – RF resident
100%
BVI company /
JV / Trust / etc.
Interest/dividends
100%
Cyprus
company
• The aim of the CFC Rules is that the
taxes on the income of passive
non‐Russian companies and structures
that are controlled by Russian resident
companies and individuals are paid to
the Russian budget.
• Disclosure requirements will likely also
apply to uncontrolled participations of
more than 10% in equity, as well as in
relation to settlement of foreign
structures that are not legal entities
(e.g., trusts); the question of whether
beneficiaries should file notifications is
yet to be determined.
Operating
companies
Borisov O.I., oborisov@fa.ru
39
International Taxation, part 3 of 3
15.01.2021
Controlled Foreign Companies (CFCs)
Controlled
Foreign Company
Controlled
Foreign Structure
(p.1 art. 25.13 RF Tax Code)
(p. 2 art. 11 RF Tax Code)
Shall NOT be RF Tax
Resident
Is controlled by RF
Tax Resident
All foreign companies controlled by Russian tax
residents are treated as CFCs and must be disclosed
as such, even though profits of certain types of
companies are exempt from profit tax in Russia
Is not a legal entity (trust,
fund, partnership, foreign
company, etc.)
Is established under the
foreign legislation
Is entitled to carry out
income generating activity
Is controlled by RF Tax
Resident
Key Definitions – Control Criterion
– Relevant for the control criterion are:
– Voting rights;
– Stake in the company’s equity
– Influence on decisions (e.g. through shareholder
agreement).
Dividend rights should not be taken into account with
regard to the control criterion (see structuring options in
the case studies).
Borisov O.I., oborisov@fa.ru
40
International Taxation, part 3 of 3
15.01.2021
Key Definitions – Control Criterion
– A controlling person is:
– A person whose direct and/or indirect participating interest in the
company in conjunction with his spouse and/or minor‐age children and
other dependent persons is more than 25%.
– A person (as defined above) that directly and /or indirectly owns over
10% of a company, where all Russian tax residents (in conjunction with
his spouse and/or minor‐age children and other dependent persons )
have an aggregated direct and/or indirect interest of over 50%.
– Equity ownership is calculated taking into account participation held via
structures, including trusts, in relation to which a Russian individual is a
controlling person; courts may take into account other circumstances.
Cyprus International Trusts (CIT)
Key parties to a trust:
Settlor:
Key CIT features:
governed exclusively by
Cyprus law;
may exist in perpetuity;
powerful asset protection
mechanism;
a trustee has unlimited
investment powers.
establishes a trust by transferring assets to it;
may have some reserved powers (e.g. to revoke
or amend trust terms, give directions for making
payments, etc.);
Trustee:
holds assets of the trust for the
beneficiaries’ benefit;
Beneficiary:
is entitled to receive income
and/or capital of the trust;
Protector:
exercises oversight over trustees
on settlor’s behalf;
Enforcer:
enforcers a trust made for a
specific purpose.
Borisov O.I., oborisov@fa.ru
41
International Taxation, part 3 of 3
15.01.2021
Typical Structure
Shareholder
Trust
78,5%
21,5%
Holding
company
Other company
100%
BVI company
100%
Company 1
Company 2
50%
50%
Company 3
100%
Russian
company
Criteria for Considering a Trust as CFC
The relevant trust can be treated as CFC if one the following
conditions are met (para. 5, p. 7 art. 25.13 RF Tax Code):
founder of the trust is entitled to receive assets of this trust in his
property;
settlor’s rights can be transferred to another person;
founder is entitled to receive directly/indirectly (via an affiliate) any
profit of the trust distributed among all its participants (shareholders,
trustees or other persons);
possibility to distribute its profit among all its participants (shareholders,
trustees or other persons).
Borisov O.I., oborisov@fa.ru
42
International Taxation, part 3 of 3
15.01.2021
Foundations
Founder
(does not
participate in
management)
Key Features of
appoints
Foundations:
establishes
Protector
FOUNDATION
a legal entity
controls
separate legal entity (not a trust);
closely regulated by statutory rules;
only statutes of Foundation shall
be registered;
civil law rules on forced heirship
can apply to foundations formed in
such jurisdictions;
cannot undertake certain activities,
e.g. commercial activities.
in favor of
Council Members
Beneficiary (s)
Investment Funds
Monetary Authority/Regulator
(Cayman Islands, Jersey, Cyprus)
No formal obligation of RF Tax
resident to notify RF tax
authorities on controlled
participation in the Fund – if
portfolio is less than 10%;
Managing company
No obligation on notifying RF tax
authorities on foreign account and
activity on it;
Fund
Borisov O.I., oborisov@fa.ru
Potentially is not a CFC.
Portfolio 1
Portfolio 2
Client 1
Client2
43
International Taxation, part 3 of 3
15.01.2021
Insurance Wrappers (1)
nominates
Policy holder
(non-Russian
person/entity)
Life policy
Life
insurance
company
SPV
Beneficiary
(non-Russian
person/entity)
Life assured
person
(RF tax resident)
Investment
Manager
manages
assets
appoints
Insurance Wrappers (2)
Insurance:
Investment:
Life assured person (Russian tax resident):
not a founder/settlor/establisher of the SPV;
not a controlling person or beneficiary of the SPV;
cannot withdraw, surrender, pledge the policy or
take up advantages on the policy.
Investment manager:
has to manage the assets according to the agreed
investment strategy, in line with the risk profile of the
Policyholder and rules of the regulator
cannot dispose of assets
cannot withdraw or surrender the policy
Policyholder:
can withdraw or surrender the policy
Life assured person (Russian tax resident):
not a founder/settlor/establisher of SPV;
not a controlling person or beneficiary of SPV;
Borisov O.I., oborisov@fa.ru
44
International Taxation, part 3 of 3
15.01.2021
Exemption from Taxation – Legal Entities
Profits of a CFC are exempt from taxation in Russia if:
The CFC is a tax resident in a treaty state (except for those treaty states that
do not exchange information with the Russian tax authorities);
and
If the effective tax rate is at least
75% of the average weighted rate
(operational corporate income tax
rate: 20%; dividend income rate:
9% (in future: 13%))
or
If the company’s share of income
from passive activities is not more
than 20%.
Structures which are not legal entities (“corporations”) might be exempt if, in
addition to other requirements, this structure does not have the capacity to
distribute profits among its participants or other persons according to its
personal law and constituting documents.
Calculating the Profit of a CFC
A CFC’s profits are determined:
– In accordance with its financial statements subject to audit
provided the CFC is located in a treaty jurisdiction (in this
case, CFC will not have to recalculate its profits under
Russian tax rules);
– According to Chapter 25 of the Russian Tax Code for all
other instances.
Borisov O.I., oborisov@fa.ru
45
International Taxation, part 3 of 3
15.01.2021
CFC Rules
Liquidation Payments and Sales of Shares
– A foreign company is not a tax resident if a decision has been made to
liquidate the company and the liquidation procedure is completed by
1 January 2017
– Similar to liquidation proceeds, the Draft Law exempts income that a
CFC earns from sales of certain securities and/or property rights to a
company that qualifies as a controlling entity or to its Russian related
party.
– This provision applies if there has been a decision to liquidate the CFC
and the liquidation procedure is completed by 1 January 2017. This is
a transitional provision to provide an incentive for the restructuring of
Russian groups to eliminate companies which would otherwise give
rise to tax liabilities under the new CFC rules.
Case Study I
Reorganisation of an existing Structure
Current structure:
Target structure:
Swiss
Foundation
BVI
HoldCo
50% (25%)
HoldCo CH
OpCos
(Russia)
Borisov O.I., oborisov@fa.ru
OpCos
(Russia)
46
International Taxation, part 3 of 3
15.01.2021
Reorganisation of an existing Structure
Restructuring steps:
5.
3.
1.
Swiss
Foundation
BVI
2.
•
Step 1: Establishment of Swiss
Foundation, HoldCo and HoldCo CH
by BVI
•
Step 2: Donation of HoldCo shares
from BVI to Swiss foundation
•
Step 3: Liquidation of BVI
•
Step 4: Liquidation of Cyprus HoldCo
•
Step 5: Transfer of 50% (25%) of the
shares in HoldCo CH to Russian
individual (?)
HoldCo
1.
HoldCo CH
4.
OpCos
(Russia)
Case Study I
Corporate Foundations
According to Swiss law, the foundation is a legally independent purpose fund. To
establish a Swiss foundation an endowment of assets for a particular purpose is
required. The foundation is established by public deed or by testamentary
disposition. Further, an entry into the commercial register is required.
Corporate foundations («Unternehmensstiftungen») are neither regulated nor
mentioned in the Swiss foundation law but are a very common feature in
practice.
A corporate foundation is considered nonprofit provided that the interest in
maintaining the company serves a nonprofit purpose and if the foundation does
not carry out management activities.
Participation exemption is not applicable but depending on the canton the
effective tax rate is very low (e.g. 4.98% in the canton of Nidwalden or 7.7% in the
canton of Lucerne).
Borisov O.I., oborisov@fa.ru
47
International Taxation, part 3 of 3
15.01.2021
Case Study II
Set up of a new Structure
Current situation:
Target structure:
Independent Swiss
individual
51% Voting Rights
30% Dividend rights
Russian Individual
49% Voting Rights
70% Dividend rights
HoldCo CH
HoldCo CH
HoldCo CH
OpCos
(Russia)
Loans
Equity: 30%
Debt: 70%
Case Study II
Shares with Privileged Voting Rights
– According to Swiss corporate law, a disproportionate
voting power can be achieved via issuing two classes of
shares with equal voting rights, but different nominal
values (so called shares with privileged voting rights).
– The highest nominal value may not be more than ten
times than the lowest.
– Each share grants to its holder a right to a portion of
dividend and liquidation proceeds proportional to its
nominal value.
Borisov O.I., oborisov@fa.ru
48
International Taxation, part 3 of 3
15.01.2021
Case Study II
Shares with Privileged Voting Rights
Example:
If a shareholder owns 100 shares with a nominal value of CHF
10.– and another shareholder owns 100 shares with a
nominal value of CHF 1.–, they would each have the same
number of votes (namely 100) at the general shareholders'
meeting. They would also each have the same influence on
the company, even if the second shareholder held a stake in
the company's equity that was ten times smaller than the
first shareholder. However, the dividend payment to the first
shareholder is ten times higher than to the second
shareholder.
Case Study II
Participation Certificates
Swiss corporate law does not permit non voting shares, but
participation certificates can be issued.
In principle, the holders of participation certificates have the same
financial rights as the holders of shares but no voting rights.
The articles of association can, however, grant certain social rights to
the holders of participation certificates (such as the right to call a
general meeting or the right to information).
The holders of participation certificates have the right to challenge the
resolutions of the general meeting that violate the law or the articles of
association and to initiate liability suits against the organs of the
company for breach of their fiduciary duties.
Borisov O.I., oborisov@fa.ru
49
International Taxation, part 3 of 3
15.01.2021
US tax reporting & collection system
Specific Issues Addressed
• High profile situations where
Foreign Financial Institutions (FFI)
were used to shield US taxpayers’
identities from the Internal
Revenue Service (IRS)
• Foreign banking privacy laws in
certain tax havens were difficult to
overcome and became a practical
impediment to detecting tax
evasion
Response
• Legislation that creates a new
withholding and reporting regime
intended to provide the IRS with
additional tools which:
- require FFIs to perform a more
exhaustive search for US persons;
and
- require non-financial foreign
entities (NFFEs) to disclose direct
and indirect substantial US owner
Borisov O.I., oborisov@fa.ru
50
International Taxation, part 3 of 3
15.01.2021
Scope of FATCA
• FATCA stands for “Foreign Account Tax Compliance Act”
• US tax law enacted March 18, 2010, Effective as from July 1st, 2014
• The objective of FATCA is to increase the ability to detect US tax
evaders hiding their money in accounts at financial institutions
(banks/investment vehicles) outside the US
• FATCA requires financial institutions to identify and report US
customers
• In order to comply with FATCA Financial Institutions will have to:
- Identify on US customers
- Report to the IRS on US customers and improve processes to
manage customer information (e.g., KYC, on-boarding data)
- Withhold taxes as deemed necessary
Worldwide increased transparency
US regulation
EU regulation
FATCA enables the Internal Revenue Service
(IRS) to collect tax income from sources
previously hidden (US tax evaders)
EU Savings Directive provides for a
reporting regime
7 million US persons live outside the US – only
10% file a US tax return. Revenue is estimated at
approximately $10 billion over 10 years
Increases transparency on the
hidden assets of EU residents
FATCA encourages Foreign Financial Institutions
to enter into an agreement with US tax authority to
comply with documentation, reporting, verification
and withholding procedures
The widening of the scope is under
discussion
30% withholding tax on “passthru payments” (US
and certain non-US income) in case of noncompliance
Borisov O.I., oborisov@fa.ru
51
International Taxation, part 3 of 3
15.01.2021
An overview of payment and information flows
What is an FFI?
Borisov O.I., oborisov@fa.ru
52
International Taxation, part 3 of 3
15.01.2021
FATCA – Agreement with the IRS
FATCA strongly encourages Foreign Financial Institution to enter into an
agreement (“contract”) with the IRS e.g. to:
• Obtain information from each account holder (and investor) as necessary
to determine which accounts are “US accounts”;
• Comply with verifications and due diligence procedures;
• Report annually certain information (incl. name of investor, investment
volume, income paid etc.) to the US tax authorities;
• Under certain conditions 30% withholding tax on “withholdable
payments”;
• Provide IRS with further information upon request; and
• Attempt to obtain a waiver in any case in which foreign law (e.g.
Luxembourg banking secrecy) would prevent reporting of such
information.
US Account = A U.S. account is any financial account maintained by an FFI
that is held by one or more US persons (US citizen or US resident) or “USowned foreign entity”, i.e. corporations, partnerships or trust in which a
specified US individual owns directly or indirectly more than 10% of the stock
(by vote or value), interest, profits or capital (10% is reduced to 0% for most
investment vehicles).
FATCA MODEL 1 IGAs
USA
Department of the
Treasury
Internal Revenue
Service
Bilateral Tax Treaty / Convention
on Mutual Administrative
Assistance
in Tax Matters / Tax Information
Exchange Agreement in force
FATCA MODEL 1 IGA
Foreign Contracting
State
Minister of Public
Finance
Tax Administration
Report US accounts
Legislative
Branch
Ratifies- Enacts
domestic law
incorporating
FATCA MODEL
1 IGA provisions
U.S. Withholding
Agents
Borisov O.I., oborisov@fa.ru
FFIs
NFFEs
Certify if US or not
53
International Taxation, part 3 of 3
15.01.2021
MODEL 2 IGAs
USA
Department of the
Treasury
Internal Revenue
Service
Bilateral Tax Treaty / Convention
on Mutual Administrative
Assistance
in Tax Matters / Tax Information
FATCA MODEL 2 IGA
FFI
Report US accounts
Foreign Contracting
State
Minister of Public
Finance
Tax Administration
Legislative
Branch
Ratifies- Enacts
domestic law
incorporating
FATCA MODEL
2 IGA
provisions
U.S. Withholding
Agents
Certify if US or not
NFFEs
Q&A
Suggestions, comments and questions very welcome!
Borisov O.I., oborisov@fa.ru
54