История и культура стран изучаемых языков

Министерство науки и высшего образования Российской Федерации ФГБОУ ВО «Сибирский государственный университет науки и технологий имени академика М.Ф.Решетнева» И.В.ДРЫГИНА ИСТОРИЯ И КУЛЬТУРА СТРАН ИЗУЧАЕМЫХ ЯЗЫКОВ Курс лекций для студентов направления 45.03.02 «Лингвистика» очной и очно-заочной формы обучения Красноярск 2017 УДК 81’1 (042.4) История и культура стран изучаемых языков: курс лекций для студентов направления 45.03.02 «Лингвистика» очной и очно-заочной формы обучения / Дрыгина И.В. - Красноярск: СибГУ, 2017. - 108 с. Табл. 0 Ил. 0 Библиогр.: 20 назв. Автор: канд.пед.наук, доцент Дрыгина Инна Валерьевна В курсе лекций дана общая информация об основных этапах исторического развития Великобритании, о становлении монархии, политической системы, зарождении культурных традиций, а также основные события из истории Соединенных Штатов Америки. Курс лекций содержит текст, к каждой теме – вопросы для контроля. Рекомендуется как для использования в учебном процессе, так и для самостоятельного изучения дисциплины. © И.В. Дрыгина, 2017 © ФГБОУ ВО «Сибирский государственный университет науки и технологий имени академика М.Ф.Решетнева», 2017 2 СОДЕРЖАНИЕ ВВЕДЕНИЕ ……………………………………..………………………… 5 МОДУЛЬ 1. ИСТОРИЯ АНГЛИИ С ДРЕВНИХ ВРЕМЕН ДО XIV ВЕКА ЛЕКЦИЯ 1. ИСТОРИЯ АНГЛИИ С ДРЕВНИХ ВРЕМЕН ДО V ВЕКА. АНГЛО-САКСОНСКОЕ ЗАВОЕВАНИЕ АНГЛИИ ……………………. 9 ЛЕКЦИЯ 2. НАБЕГИ ДАТЧАН. НОРМАНСКОЕ ЗАВОЕВАНИЕ БРИТАНИИ ………….………………………………….………………… 21 ЛЕКЦИЯ 3. РАЗВИТИЕ ГОРОДОВ И РЕМЕСЕЛ В X-XIII ВВ. 32 РАЗВИТИЕ КУЛЬТУРЫ.…………………………..…………………...… ЛЕКЦИЯ 4. АНГЛИЯ В СРЕДНИЕ ВЕКА.…………..……..…………… 37 МОДУЛЬ 2. ИСТОРИЯ АНГЛИИ В XV-XX ВЕКАХ ЛЕКЦИЯ 1. АНГЛИЯ В ПЕРИОДЫ ПРАВЛЕНИЯ ДИНАСТИИ 49 ТЮДОРОВ ………………………………………………………………… ЛЕКЦИЯ 2. АНГЛИЯ В ПЕРИОДЫ ПРАВЛЕНИЯ ДИНАСТИИ СТЮАРДОВ. РЕСПУБЛИКА В АНГЛИИ.…………………….………... 60 ЛЕКЦИЯ 3. РАЗВИТИЕ АНГЛИИ В XVIII-XIX ВЕКАХ….…………… 67 ЛЕКЦИЯ 4. ВЕЛИКОБРИТАНИЯ В XX ВЕКЕ ………………..……..… 74 МОДУЛЬ 3. ИСТОРИЯ РАЗВИТИЯ СОЕДИНЕННЫХ ШТАТОВ АМЕРИКИ ЛЕКЦИЯ 1. ИСТОРИЯ РАЗВИТИЯ СОЕДИНЕННЫХ ШТАТОВ АМЕРИКИ (С ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ ГОСУДАРСТВА ПО XX ВЕК)………. 85 ТЕМЫ ДЛЯ САМОКОНТРОЛЯ ………………………………………… 99 ТЕМЫ ДЛЯ ПРЕЗЕНТАЦИЙ …………………………………………….. 101 КОНТРОЛЬНЫЕ ВОПРОСЫ К ЭКЗАМЕНУ ….………………….…… 103 ЗАКЛЮЧЕНИЕ …………………………………………………………… 104 БИБЛИОГРАФИЧЕСКИЙ СПИСОК …………………………………… 104 ПРИЛОЖЕНИЕ A. СПИСОК КЛЮЧЕВЫХ СЛОВ …………….……… 107 3 CONTENT INTRODUCTORY …………………………………………………….…… 5 MODULE 1. HISTORY OF ENGLAND FROM ANCIENT TIMES TO THE XIVTH. CENTURTY LECTURE 1. HISTORY OF ENGLAND FROM ANCIENT TIMES TO THE 5TH CENTURY. ANGLO-SAXON CONQUEST OF BRITAIN …..… 9 LECTURE 2. DANES RAIDS. NORMAN CONQUEST OF BRITAIN.……………………………………………….……………..…… 21 LECTURE 3. DEVELOPMENT OF TOWNS AND CRAFTS IN THE 1013TH CENTURIES. DEVELOPMENT OF CULTURE ………………….… 32 LECTURE 4. ENGLAND IN MIDDLE AGES ………..………………….. 37 MODULE 2. HISTORY OF ENGLAND IN XV-XXTH. CENTURIES LECTURE 1. ENGLAND DURING TUDOR TIMES……………………... 49 LECTURE 2. ENGLAND DURIING STUART TIMES. REPUBLIC IN BRITAIN …………………………..……….............................................. 60 LECTURE 3. DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLAND IN THE 18-19TH CENTURIES…………………………………………………………..…… 67 LECTURE 4. GREAT BRITAIN IN THE 20TH CENTURY …………….… 74 MODULE 3. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA LECTURE 1. HISTORY OF THE USA (FROM FOUNDATION TILL 20TH CENTURY) …….………………………………………………….… 85 TASKS FOR SELF-CONTROL …………………………………………… 99 LIST OF TOPICS FOR REPORT …………………………………….….. 101 APPROXIMATE QUESTIONS FOR EXAM ….………………………...… 103 CONCLUSION………………………………………………….……..…… 104 LITERATURE FOR ADDITIONAL READING…………………………… 104 SUPPLEMENT A. LIST OF KEY WORDS ………………………….…… 4 107 ВВЕДЕНИЕ Активное участие России в международных отношениях между странами и в том числе с Великобританией и Соединенными Штатами Америки предъявляют высокие требования к уровню профессиональной подготовки лингвистов, будущих переводчиков, работающих в различных сферах деятельности. Чтобы активно участвовать в жизни той или иной страны важно либо хорошо знать язык этой страны, его культуру или пользоваться услугами профессиональных переводчиков. Необходимость ведения курса «История и культура стран изучаемых языков» заключается в повышении качества подготовки квалифицированных бакалавров лингвистики. становлению Данная профессиональной дисциплина должна компетентности способствовать бакалавра в области лингвистики через формирование целостного представления об истории и культуре стран изучаемых языков (Великобритания, Соединенные Штаты Америки), знакомство с этапами становления, историей и культурой, спецификой исторического развития, способного успешно работать в профессиональной сфере, толерантного, готового к продолжению образования и включению в деятельность на основе овладения общекультурными и профессиональными компетенциями. Курс подготовлен для студентов очной и очно-заочной формы обучения, обучающихся по направлению 45.03.02 Лингвистика. Общая трудоемкость дисциплины составляет 3 зачетные единицы (108 часов). Общее количество часов для изучения на очной форме обучения - 108, в том числе лекционных часов - 18, практических занятий - 36, самостоятельной работы – 54. Курс лекций построен и разработан в соответствии с требованиями Федерального государственного образовательного образования. 5 стандарта высшего В курсе лекций «История и культура стран изучаемых языков» рассматриваются основные этапы исторического развития Великобритании и США. Материал сгруппирован по темам согласно программе учебной дисциплины, и включает в себя лекционный материал, вопросы для самоконтроля и рекомендуемую литературу. При изучении курса необходимо использовать также периодические источники. Курс «История и культура стран изучаемых языков» завершается экзаменом при очной и очно-заочной форме обучения. В результате изучения курса лекций по дисциплине предполагается формирование следующих общекультурных и профессиональных компетенций студентов: ОК-2: способностью руководствоваться принципами культурного релятивизма и этическими нормами, предполагающими отказ от этноцентризма и уважение своеобразия иноязычной культуры и ценностных ориентаций иноязычного социума; ОК-3: владением коммуникации, навыками социокультурной обеспечивающими адекватность и межкультурной социальных и профессиональных контактов; ПК-16: владением необходимыми интеракциональными и контекстными знаниями, позволяющими преодолевать влияние стереотипов и адаптироваться к изменяющимся условиям при контакте с представителями различных культур; ПК-17: способностью моделировать возможные ситуации общения между представителями различных культур и социумов; ПК-18: владением нормами этикета, принятыми в различных ситуациях межкультурного общения (сопровождение туристических групп, обеспечение деловых переговоров, обеспечение переговоров официальных делегаций). 6 INTRODUCTORY Active participation of Russia in international relations between different countries including Great Britain and the United States of America put forward high demands to the level of professional education of interpreters working in different spheres. For active participation in the life of this or that country is very important to know the language of this country or to use the professional interpreters. Importance of the course “History and culture of language learning countries” lies in necessity to rise the quality of education of bachelors in linguistics. This discipline has to contribute to the formation of professional competence BA in linguistics through a holistic understanding of the history and culture of the language learning countries (United Kingdom, United States of America), familiarity with the stages of development, history and culture, the specific historical development, capable to work successfully in the professional field, tolerant, ready to continue his education and inclusion in innovation based on mastery of general cultural and professional competences. The course is prepared for the students of full-time and part-time department of 45.03.02 direction. Total labor intensity of discipline is 3 credit units (108 hours).The total amount of hours for the learning on the day department is 108, among them: 18 – for lectures, 36 – for practical lessons, 54 – for self-education. The course of lectures is prepared and written according to the demands of the Federal state educational standard of higher education. In the course of lectures “History and culture of language learning countries” the main stages of historical development of Great Britain and the USA are described. The studied material is united according to the programme and includes lectures, questions for self-control and recommended literature on each topic. It is necessary to use also the periodic materials while learning the course. The course of lectures “History and culture of language learning countries” ends with exam in the 5th term for the students of full-time and part-time department. 7 After studying the course of lectures on the subject, formation of following common cultural and professional competencies of students should take place: CCC-2: the ability to be guided by the principles of cultural relativism and ethical norms, suggesting the rejection of ethnocentrism and respect for cultural identity of foreign language and values of foreign society; CCC-3: possession of skills of socio-cultural and cross-cultural communication, to provide adequate social and professional contacts; PC-16: possession of the necessary interactional and contextual knowledge to overcome the influence of stereotypes and to adapt to changing conditions in contact with different cultures; PC-17: the ability to simulate possible situations of dialogue between different cultures and societies; PC-18: possession of etiquette rules adopted in various situations of intercultural communication (support for tourist groups, provision of business negotiations, ensuring negotiations of the official delegations). 8 MODULE 1 HISTORY OF ENGLAND FROM ANCIENT TIMES TO THE XIVTH. CENTURY LECTURE 1 HISTORY OF ENGLAND FROM ANCIENT TIMES TO THE VTH CENTURY. ANGLO-SAXON CONQUEST OF BRITAIN Plan: 1. Ancient Britain. Celts in Britain. 2. Romans on the territory of Britain. 3. Anglo-Saxon conquest of Britain. 4. Life in Anglo-Saxon village in Britain. 5. Inequality among people in village and changes in administration. 6. Conversion to Christianity. 1. Ancient Britain Thousands years ago Britain was a part of the continent. The first human inhabitants in Britain came there by dry land. Later the present English Channel appeared. The country was covered with forest and people hunted there. The first inhabitants of the island were Iberians who had arrived in Britain from the region of the Mediterranean Sea and inhabited it between 3000 and 2000 B.C. We do not know much about these early people because they lived in Britain long before a word of the history was written, but we can learn something from their skeletons, their weapons and the remains of the dwellings, which have been found. They used stone weapons and tools. A characteristic monument to this civilization is the so-called Stonehenge – a number of huge stones standing in the circle. During the period from the 6th to the 3rd centuries BC people called the Celts from Central Europe, from what is now France and Germany moved to Britain. They whole migrated in tribes, warriors with their chiefs, their women and their children. 9 More than one Celtic tribe invaded Britain. Picts settled in the north in the mountains, Scots came later and settled in the north too (north was called Scotland), Britons – in the south and central part (country was called Briton). The Celts were armed with metal spears, swords, daggers and axes. Most of the Iberians were killed in the conflicts; some of them were moved westwards into the mountains and the others probably mixed with the Celts. The earliest writer who wrote about Celts was Julius Caesar, the famous Roman general, statesman and writer. In his “Commentaries on the Gallic war” Julius Caesar describes the island and the Celts. In the 1st century BC they lived in tribes and were ruled by chiefs whom all the tribesman obeyed. The chiefs were military leaders and some of them were very powerful. The tribe was the chief economic unit; the main activity of the Celts was farming. The Celts has no towns, they lived in the villages. They were acquainted with the use of copper, tin and iron and they kept cattle and sheep. They also cultivated crops, especially corn. The Celtic tribes of the Britons were more civilized. They could make clothes of wool. The other Celts wore skins. The Celts worshipped Nature. They imagined the sky, the sun, the moon, the earth, the sea to be ruled by being like they, but much more powerful. They also believed in many nameless spirits who lived in the rivers, lakes, mountains and thick forests. They sacrificed not only animals, but also human beings to their gods. Sometimes these victims were burnt; sometimes they were slain with knives. They were taught by priests called druids in another life after death. The druids lived in sacred places and were very important and powerful, sometimes more powerful then the chiefs. The Celts believed that the druids were able to foretell the future. The druids were also teachers and doctors for they were wiser than the other tribesmen. The Celts produced tools of metal – first, of bronze, that is, a mixture of copper and tin, later, of much harder metal, iron. The life of the Celts differed greatly from that of the Iberians. But both lived under the primitive system: people worked collectively; they owned common 10 property and were all equal. They worked together and shared the products of their labour. All food was divided equally among the members of the clan. Their tools were primitive and the labour productivity was low. A man could not produce more than he needs. In the tribe there were no classes so there was no state system, that is no armed forces, no prisons, no courts and no government bodies. In the last centuries BC and in the first centuries AD the Celts were in a period of transition from primitive society to class society. The elders, military leaders and their warriors made up the tribal nobility. They had more cattle, better weapons and houses. Like all the ancient people the Celts made up many legends about their gods and heroes. The legends were passed down from generation to generation. They were written down in the Middle Ages but they describe the life of Celts. The Celtic legends are called the “Celtic Saga”. Some customs of the Druids are kept in England nowadays. On New Year’s Day the mistletoe, which becomes green at this time of the year, is hung up in the houses. 2. Romans on the territory of Britain Two thousand years ago the Romans were the most powerful people in the world. Roman society differs greatly from that of the Celts. It was a slave society divided into antagonistic classes. The main classes were the slaves and the slaveowners. The slave-owners owned the land, tools, buildings and slaves. The slaves possessed neither land nor tools and were themselves the property of the slaveowners. The slaves could be bought and sold, exchanged and given away like any other thing. They could be kept in chains, whipped and put to death. The slaves were given some food and clothing so that they would not die of starvation and cold. Slaves were so cheap that all the Romans except the poorest had one or more, and rich slave-owners possessed hundreds of them. The Romans conquered all the countries around the Mediterranean Sea. One of 11 the last countries to be conquered by Rome was France. In 55 В. С. a Roman army of 10,000 men crossed the Channel and invaded Britain. The Celts attacked the Romans. In the next year, 54 B.C., Caesar again came to Britain, this time with larger forces (25,000 men). The Celts fought bravely, but the Romans were stronger and forced them to pat tribute. Only in 43 A.D. when the Emperor Cllaudius sent a 50-thousand strong army Britain was invaded by Romans. Since that time up to 410 Britain was one of the remote provinces of the Roman Empire. To defend their province the Romans stationed their legions in Britain. Straight roads were built for the legions to march quickly, whenever they were needed, to any part of the country. They were made so well that they lasted a long time and still exist today. Bridges of stone were built wherever a road crossed a river. As a result of the conquest signs of Roman civilization spread over Britain. First towns appeared in Britain. The houses were built of stones, plastered and painted with roofs made of large red tiles. Every Roman town had a drainage system and a good supply of pure water. But together with a high civilization the Romans brought exploitation and slavery to the British Isles. Rich Romans had villas in the country. The free Celts had to pay heavy taxes to the conquerors and were made to work for them. The Romans made them clean forests, build roads, bridges and walls for defense. Among the Celts themselves inequality began to grow — the tribal chiefs and nobility became richer than other members of the tribe. Many of them became officials acting for Rome. Tribal chiefs who submitted were appointed to rule their people as before, but now they acted in the name of the Roman Emperor. The noble Celts adopted the mode of life of their conquerors. They lived in rich houses and they dressed as Romans. They spoke Latin, the language of the Romans. But the rank-andfile Celts went on living in their tiny huts, they spoke their native Celtic tongue and they did not understand the language of their rulers. The Romans remained in Britain for about four centuries. In the 3rd-4th centuries the power of the Roman Empire gradually weakened. Slavery became an 12 obstacle to technical progress. At the end of the 4th century the Germanic tribes invaded the Western Roman Empire. Early in the 5th century (407) the Roman legions were recalled from Britain to defend the central provinces of the Roman Empire from the attacks of the Germanic tribes. There are today many things Britain to remind the people the Romans: roads, towns, villas, bridges. Besides, many words of Modern English have come from Latin (street comes from strata, wall from vallum, port from potus). 3. Anglo-Saxon conquest of Britain After the departure of the Romans (407) the Celts retained their independence for a short period of time. From the middle of the 5th century they were subject to the attacks of the Germanic tribes of the Jutes, the Saxon and the Angles. The Jutes and the Angles came from the Jutland peninsula (southern Denmark) and the Saxons from the territory between the Rhine and the Elbe rivers (northern Germany). By the 5th century the German tribes were expanding into the Roman Empire, as well as into Britain. The Angles, Saxons and Jutes turned their special attention to the British Isles. At first they came to plunder. They would land from their boats, drive off and slay the cattle, seize the stores of corn, and be off again to sea before the Celts could attack them. But after some time they return again and again in larger numbers and began to conquer the country. In 449 the Jutes landed in Kent and this was the beginning of the conquest. The British natives fought fiercely against the invaders and it took more than a hundred and 50 years for the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes to conquer the country. The Germanic tribes conquered the Roman provinces on the Continent without any serious resistance as the bulk of the population in the provinces occupied by the Roman welcomed the Germanic invaders as their liberators. But the British Celts were free at the time and their resistance was often stubborn and prolonged. In the South-East the Celts were soon overwhelmed, but in the western parts of the country 13 they offered stout resistance for many years. Now and then the Celts won and the invaders were forced back. As a result Britain held out longer than the other provinces of the Roman Empire. It was only by the beginning of the 7th century that the invaders managed to conquer the greater part of the land. The final refuge of the Cells was Cornwall and Wales - the mountainous districts of the West - and the northern part of the island (Scotland) where the Celts were still living in tribes and, later on, some independent states were formed. The Celts of Ireland remained independent too. In the course of the conquest many of the Celts were killed, some were taken prisoners and made slaves or had to pay tribute to the conquerors. Some of the Celts crossed the sea to the North-West of France and settled in what was later on called Brittany after the Celtic tribes of Britons. By the end of the 6th and the beginning of the 7th century several kingdoms were formed on the territory of Britain conquered by the Germanic tribes. Kent was set up by the Jutes in the South-East. In the southern and the south-eastern parts of the country the Saxons formed a number of kingdoms — Sussex (the land of the South Saxons), Wessex (the land of the West Saxons) and Essex (the land of the East Saxons). Farther north were the settlements of the Angles who had conquered the greater part of the country. In the North they founded Northumbria, which has left its name in the present county of Northumberland; Mercia was formed in the Middle, and East Anglia — in the East of England, north of the East Saxon kingdom. These kingdoms were hostile to one another and they fought constantly for supreme power in the country. The new conquerors brought new changes altogether different from those that had followed the conquest of the country by the Romans. The new settlers disliked towns preferring to live in small villages. In the course of the conquest they destroyed the Roman towns and villas. All the beautiful buildings and baths and roads were so neglected that they soon fell in ruins. The Jutes, the Saxons and the Angles were closely akin in speech and customs. The name “Jute” soon died out and the conquerors were referred to as the Anglo-Saxons. 14 As a result of the conquest the Anglo-Saxons made up the majority of the population in Britain and their customs, religion and languages became predominant. At first the Anglo-Saxons spoke various dialects but gradually the dialect of the Angles of Mercia became predominant. In the course of time all the people of Britain were referred to as the English after the Angles and the new name of England was given to the whole country. The Anglo-Saxon language, or English, has been the principal language of the country since then although it has undergone great change. The conquest must have been ruthless in its character. The barbaric invaders not only annihilated all the remnants of Roman culture, they killed and plundered and laid the country waste. 4. Life in Anglo-Saxon village The Anglo-Saxons came in family groups and in tribes with wives and children immediately following in the wake of the warriors with personal effects, household possessions and agricultural implements. The ancient organization of blood-relations as a social unit was beginning to decay since the military group was growing in importance through the military leader still surrounded himself with blood-relations: the migrants of kinship groups and tribes quickened this process of decay, since family groups were liable to be scattered and intermixed in the process. Besides, side by side with the family group appeared another unit of society, a territorial one – the village or the township as it was called. The prevailing form of landownership was characteristic of a free village community: land was common property. Most of the Anglo-Saxons settled far away from the Roman towns. They would find a suitable place in the valley of some river, where the soil was good and there was a good water supply. They often used the lands round the Roman villas, but as a rule they lived neither in the villas themselves nor in the Roman towns – they were essentially an agricultural people. Besides arable-farming, the Anglo-Saxons continued their old occupations of cattle-breeding, hunting and fishing. Each village was self-sufficient, that is most of the necessities of life were produced in the village itself. The needs of the villagers were few and simple. Food, 15 clothing and shelter were their basic needs. Arable-farming and cattle-breeding satisfied the needs of the people in the way of foodstuffs, clothing and footwear. The peasants of the village formed a little society - a community. The land of the village belonged to the whole community and each villager had a right to a share of it. From the village meadows the members of the community had a share of hay to feed their cattle in winter-time, in the common forests they cut branches for winterfuel; they grazed their cattle on the common pasture and fished in the rivers and lakes. However, harvest, cattle, implements of labour and the house with a garden round it were the villager's private property. All the disputes of the community members were settled at the folk-moots. The community united the peasants as they used the pastures, meadows and forests in common, cultivated the land in one and the same way according to the old customs and tackled all other problems in common. 5. Inequality among people in village and changes in administration But not all the members of the community were equal. Inequality had already appeared among the Anglo-Saxons before the conquest of Britain The tribal nobility, that is, military leaders and elders, possessed more land and cattle than other tribesmen. Their land was cultivated by prisoners of war who were their slaves. However, the bulk of the Anglo-Saxons were made up of free community members. These free peasants worked for themselves and had enough land and cattle to feed their families. The prisoners of war the Anglo-Saxons were given small plots of land for their own use. The effect of the conquest of Britain was to increase the wealth of the AngloSaxon nobility. The elders and military leaders distributed the land and cattle among the tribesmen in the conquered country and they got more land and cattle than the rank-and-file members of the tribe. In the 7th-9th centuries gradual changes were taking place among the members of the community too. The arable land which had been held by separate families now became their private property. It could be not only inherited by the members of one 16 family as before but it could be sold, presented or given in return for debts to another owner. As a result, inequality among the members of the community was growing. Thus, in the 7th-8th centuries feudal relations were beginning to develop among the Anglo-Saxons, that is, a class of rich landowners was forming and the free peasants were gradually losing their land and freedom. But it was a slow process in Britain. With the development of feudal relations great changes were taking place in administration too. Rich landowners were given great power over the peasants. At first after the conquest of Britain, folk-moots at which the members of the free communities gathered were held periodically. The hundred-moots presided over by an elected elder were held once a month. At the hundred-moots the men who were elected were sent as representatives to a shire-moot. (A shire was a larger district than a hundred.) The shire-moots were presided over by shire-reeves, or sheriffs, and were held two or three times a year. In the 9th century the free members of the community were not sent to the hundred-moot any longer; it was the greatest and the most influential landlords of the hundred who attended the hundred-moot and administered justice there. The hundred-elder was now one of the royal officials, a representative of the central power in a hundred, and the sheriff became the king’s chief official in the shire. The sheriff was responsible for justice and he presided over the shire-moots on behalf of the king. The king himself became the supreme judge. Soon afterwards the moots lost their importance and now it was the great council of the most powerful men in the country, known as the Witenagemot (council of the wise men), that gave advice to the king on all important matters. The AngloSaxon kings declared war and made peace, they passed laws and imposed taxes. But they always consulted “the wise men”, that is the greatest landlords of the country. Thus with the development of feudal relations, with the growth of big landed possessions all the important problems in the country were decided by the big landowners. The status of a man in society depended on how much land he possessed. It also depended on the man’s rank and his relation to the king. The king’s warriors and officials held more land and they ruled the country. 17 6. Conversion to Christianity The Christian Church also influenced the growth of the new feudal relations a great deal. The conversion of the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity began at the end of the 6th century (597) and was completed, in the main, in the second half of the 7th century. Before this the Angles, Saxons and Jutes had been pagans, that is, they believed in many gods. They worshipped the sun and the moon, the sea, springs and trees, and other pagan gods. Paganism did not teach obedience and when feudal relations began to develop among the Anglo-Saxons this religion was of no use to the kings and landlords. They needed a religion which would teach the peasants that this order of society in which the land and power belonged to the king and the lords and in which the peasants had to work for their masters, had been established by God. The religion that was to serve the interests of the rich Anglo-Saxons was Christianity. Christianity talked the poor people into being obedient; it taught them to be meek and patient and to obey their masters. In return for their patience and obedience Christianity promised them eternal happiness after death in “the next world”. The spread of Christianity brought about important changes in the life of the Anglo-Saxons. Many new churches and monasteries were built all over the country. The kings and nobles granted much land to the bishops and monasteries, and that promoted the growth of the big landed estates. The kings also granted them the right to collect dues from the population and to administer justice on their estates. Thus alongside with the landlords the churchmen became great landowner too. Besides, the spread of Christianity was of great importance for the growth of culture in Britain. The Roman monks who were converting the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity helped to spread Roman culture in the country again. The Roman monks brought many books to Britain. Most of them were religious books and they were all written in Latin and Greek. The church services were also conducted in Latin. The Latin language was again heard in Britain. Latin was of international 18 importance at that time, as it was used by learned men in all countries. They wrote their books in Latin so that they could be understood by the learned men of other countries. The Anglo-Saxons spoke quite a different language of Germanic origin and did not understand Latin. The Anglo-Saxon nobles were ignorant; many of them were quite illiterate and could not even sign their own names. No one except the monks knew Latin and the monasteries became centres of knowledge and learning in those early times. The first libraries and schools for the clergy were set up in monasteries. The monks copied out many handwritten books and even translated some books from Latin and Greek into Anglo-Saxon. Some monks were chroniclers — they kept a record of the important events of each year. Psalters, chronicles and other manuscripts written by the medieval monks are very important historical documents today. However the cultural influence of the Church affected only a small number of people and mainly the clergy. The rank-and-file Anglo-Saxons remained completely illiterate. The Christian religion had a tremendous influence over men’s minds and actions. It controlled the most important events of their life-baptism, marriage and burial. There was a church in every village and the villagers were compelled to attend the religious services held by the priests. The priest taught that it was the right of the nobles due to their position as landlords to keep order and justice on their estates. They made the villagers believe that it was his duty to obey the landlords. They promised that he would be rewarded in the after-life for all his sufferings. And the villager believed that the clergymen had the power to reward him or to send him to eternal torment after his death. Thus the Church became a powerful instrument in the hands of the feudal lords. The churchmen who become rich landlords themselves did their utmost to preach up the king, to justify the exploitation of the peasants and the power of the great landowners over them. 19 QUESTIONS FOR CONTROL 1. What do we know about the Iberians? 2. Prove that the Celts were at a higher stage of social development than the Iberians. 3. Why did the primitive people have to live collectively? 4. How was a tribe governed? 5. What was the role of the druids in the life of Celts? 6. How did the way of life in the Roman Empire differ from the life of the Celts in the 1st century A.D.? 7. Give an account of the Roman invasions of Britain in the 1st century B.C. and in the 1st century A.D. Compare the results. 8. Did the Romans conquer all parts of Britain? 9. By what means did the Romans secure their position in Britain? Why was so much importance attached to roads? 10. How did the Roman way of life influence the life of the Celts? 11. What were the reasons for the weakening and fall of the Roman Empire? 12. How did the Romans influence the life of the Celts? 13. Why was it difficult for the Anglo-Saxon to conquer Britain? 14. What was the fate of the Celts as a result of the Anglo-Saxon conquest? 15. What kingdoms and when were finally formed on the territory of Britain? Use the map of Britain and tell about Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. 16. How did the Saxons differ from the Romans? 17. What unit of society appeared that time? 18. Describe the Anglo-Saxon village. 19. What were the main occupations of the Anglo-Saxons? 20. What can you say about the labour productivity of arable-farming and cattlebreeding in Anglo-Saxon times? 21. Prove that each Anglo-Saxon village was self-sufficient in the 5-7th centuries. Why was there so little trading? 20 22. Describe the communal way of life in Anglo-Saxon village. 23. Did the tribal nobility become richer as a result of the conquest? 24. How did the administration of the Anglo-Saxons change in the 9th century? 25. When did the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity take place? 26. Why the Anglo-Saxon kings and nobles accepted Christianity first? 27. How did the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity influence the cultural development of Britain? LECTURE 2 DANES RAIDS. NORMAN CONQUEST OF BRITAIN Plan: 1. Danish raids on Britain. Danegeld. 2. The Norman Conquest of Britain. 3. Changes in the country. 4. Domesday Book. 5. Life in England after the Norman Conquest. 1. Danish raids on Britain. Danegeld The Anglo-Saxon kingdoms waged a constant struggle against one another for predominance over the country. From time to time some stronger state seized the land of the neighbouring kingdoms and made them pay tribute or even ruled them directly. The first to achieve superiority was Kent. But it was too small territorially; neither did it include the important London area. Its supremacy therefore was but shortlived, so the 7-th century was the century of Northumbrian supremacy. Only three kingdoms emerged to content for supremacy – Northumbria, Mercia, Wessex. And at last at the beginning of the 9th century Wessex became the strongest state. In 829 Egbert, king of Wessex, was acknowledged by the Kent, Mercia and Northumbria. This was really the beginning of the united kingdom of 21 England, for Wessex never again lost its supremacy and king Egbert became the first king of England. Under his rule all the small Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were united to form one kingdom which was called England from that time on. The political unification of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms was sped up by the urgent task of defending the country against the dangerous raids of the new enemies. From the end of the 8th century and during the 9th and the 10th centuries Western Europe was troubled by a new wave of barbarian attacks. These barbarians came from the North — from Norway, Sweden and Denmark, and were called North-men. In different countries the Northmen were known by many other names, as the Vikings, the Normans, the Danes. They came to Britain from Norway and Denmark. But more often the British Isles were raided from Denmark, and the invaders came to be known in English history as the Danes. The Danes were of the same Germanic race as the Anglo-Saxons themselves and they came from the same part of the Continent. But unlike the Anglo-Saxons whose way of life had changed greatly ever since they came to Britain, the Danes still lived in tribes. They were still pagans. The Danes were well armed — with sword, spear, dagger, battle-axe and bow. Their ships were sailing-boats. In 793 the Danes carried out their first raids on Britain. Their earliest raids were for plunder only. They came in spring and summer, and when the ship was loaded with plunder they returned home for the winter. Every year they went to different places-rarely to the same place twice. Thus all the AngloSaxon kingdoms faced the same dangerous enemy. In later years large Danish fleets (more than three hundred ships) brought large armies to conquer and settle in the new lands. They did not go home for the winter but they made large camps, well-guarded, to which they brought their booty. From these camps the Danes would make many raids upon the villages in the area. Thus began the fourth conquest of Britain. The Danish raids were successful because the kingdom of England had neither a regular army nor a fleet in the North Sea to meet them. Northumbria and East Anglia suffered most from the Danish raids. The Danes came into conflict with the strongest of all the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, Wessex. 22 In 871 the Danes invaded Wessex again. But it was not so easy to devastate Wessex as other parts of England. Wessex had united the small Anglo-Saxon kingdoms and under the reign of Egbert’s grandson, King Alfred (871-899) who became known in English history as Alfred the Great, Wessex became the centre of resistance against the invaders. Alfred managed to raise an army and to stop the offensive of the Danes. He turned undefended villages into fortified towns, or boroughs. Alfred saw that the best way to keep off the Danes was by fighting them at sea, and so he built ships bigger and faster than the Danish ships. He is considered to be the founder of the English fleet. As a result of all these measures, the Anglo-Saxons won several victories over the Danes. In the treaty, which followed in 886, the Danes promised to leave Wessex and a part of Mercia. They settled in the north-eastern part of England, a region which was from that time called the Danelaw, because it was ruled according to the law of the Danes. The great Roman road, Watling Street, was the boundary that separated the Danelaw from Wessex. Thus the Danes were prevented from conquering the whole island and the country was divided into two parts: the Danelaw (Northumbria, East Anglia and a part of Mercia), where the Danes spoke their language and kept to their way of life, and the English south-western part of the country, that is, Wessex, which was under Alfred’s rule. In time of peace Alfred the Great took measures to improve the laws in the interests of the great landowners and to raise the standard of culture among them. The king sent for artisans, builders and scholars from the Continent. The monasteries and churches which had been burnt by the Danes were rebuilt and schools were set up in the monasteries for the clergy. A school was started in the palace itself where the sons of the nobles learned to read and write. The books were translated from Latin. In the second half of the 10th century under the rule of Alfred's descendants the Saxon monarchy was further consolidated. The Anglo-Saxons won several victories over the Danes, took away the Danelaw and ruled over the whole of England. The Danes were not driven out of the country but they were made subjects of Wessex. They submitted to the power of the Anglo-Saxon kings and never tried to make the 23 Danelaw into a separate kingdom. The Danes influenced the development of the country greatly. They were good sailors and traders and they favoured the growth of towns and the development of trade in England. They were skilful shipbuilders. At the end of the 10th century the Danish invasions were resumed. The AngloSaxon kings were unable to organize any effective resistance and they tried to buy off the Danes. The Anglo-Saxon kings gave them money to leave them in peace. The result was that they came again in greater numbers the following year to demand more. In order to make this payment to the Danes in 991 the government imposed а heavy tax called Danegeld, or Dane money. And every time the Danes came back they received more and the government, in its turn, increased the tax of Danegeld collected from the population. The Danish invasions during the 9th and 10th centuries hastened the process of the development of feudal relations in England. The peasantry which made up the bulk of the population suffered very much from the raids of the Danes. 2. The Norman Conquest In the 9th century while the Danes were plundering England another branch of Northmen who were related to the Danes invaded the Northern coasts of France. They were called the Normans. Many changes came about in the life of the Normans and the Danes after the 9th century. By the 11th century the Danes had finally settled down as subjects of the English kings. As time went on they gradually mixed with the Anglo-Saxons among whom they lived. Thus they retained their Germanic language and many of their customs that were very much like those of the Anglo-Saxons. But the Normans who had settled down in France were now quite different from their Germanic forefathers. They lived among the French people, who were a different people, with different manners, customs and language. They had learned to speak the French language, and, in many ways, they had become like the French themselves. They adopted their manners and customs, and their way of life. The establishment of the feudal system in 24 France had been completed by the 11th century and the Norman barons had come into possession of large tracts of land and a great number of serfs. The Normans lived under the rule of their own duke. By the 11th century the dukes of Normandy had become very powerful. Though they acknowledged the king of France as their overlord, they were actually as strong as the king himself. Like other French dukes and counts they made themselves practically independent. They coined their own money, made their own laws, held their own courts, built their own castles. They could wage wars against other dukes and even against the king himself. As a well-armed and well-trained cavalry, the Norman knights were the best in Europe. They were formidable fighters and would wage wars in order to seize new lands and serfs. These descendants of the Northmen who had settled in northern France in the 9th century became the new conquerors of England. After Canute’s death in 1035 and then the death of his sons (the last one, childless, died in 1042), the Goldwin group (Goldwin held three of the six large earldoms of the country) succeeded on restoring the old Saxon dynasty to the throne of England; that was how Edward, was bought back from Normandy (the part of France occupied by the Northmen). The king Edward who died in 1066 had no children and the Witenagemot chose relative of the deceased king, the Anglo-Saxon Earl, Harold. But William, the Duke of Normandy, cousin to Edward the Confessor, declared himself heir to the throne of England and began preparations for a war to fight for the Crown. He called upon all the Christian warriors of Europe to help him gain his rights to English throne. No pay was offered, but William promised land to all who would support him William also asked the Roman Pope for his support. He promised to strengthen the Pope's power over the English Church. William landed in the south of England and the battle between the Norman and the Anglo-Saxons took place on the 14th of October 1066 at a little village in the neighborhood of the town now called Hastings. The Normans outnumbered the Anglo-Saxon forces and were greatly superior in quality. They were all men for whom fighting was the main occupation in life. The battle went on all day. The 25 Anglo-Saxons were encircled, a great many of them were killed. Harold was killed too and the battle was at an end. The victory at Hastings was only the beginning of the Conquest. It took several years for William and his barons to subdue the whole of England. Soon after the victory at Hastings the Normans encircled London and the Witenagemot had to acknowledge William as the lawful king of England. Thus the Norman duke became king of England William I or, as he was generally known, William the Conqueror. He ruled England for 21 years (1066-1087). During the first five years of his reign the Normans had to put down many rebellions in different parts of the country. In 1071 the subjugation of the country was completed, even the king of Scotland acknowledged William as a lord. All the uprisings were put down and the rebels were punished severely. With lessons of such severe punishment the conquerors meant to keep the people in obedience, to intimidate them so that they should not dare to rise against Norman rule. 3. Changes in the country The Conqueror declared that all the lands of England belonged to him by right of conquest. The estates of all the Anglo-Saxon lords who had supported Harold or acknowledged him as king were confiscated. The Anglo-Saxon landowners and the Anglo-Saxon clergy were turned out of their houses. One-seventh of the country was made the royal domain. The other lands the king granted to the Normans and Frenchmen who had taken part in the Conquest and to the Anglo-Saxon landlords who supported him. The Conqueror claimed that the forest lands which made up one-third of the country belonged to him too. Thus the king of England became the richest feudal lord of all. Each Norman noble, on getting his estate, swore an oath of allegiance to the king and became the king's vassal. Each baron received with the grant of land the promise of the king's protection, but in return he had to render military service to his overlord bringing a number of fully armed knights with him in time of war. Besides, when an estate was inherited by the heir on the death of the holder, a certain payment 26 was to be made to the king. In England the rule "My vassal's vassal is not my vassal" was broken now and it became the duty of all the landlords, great and small, to support the king against all his enemies, both foreign and domestic. (In other words, if a great lord rebelled against the king, the lesser vassals were to fight for the king, against their immediate overlord.) For greater security, when William the Conqueror rewarded his important supporters with a large number of estates, he did not give them large blocks of land but gave them a number of small estates scattered about the country. The Conqueror granted land in this way to make it difficult for the great nobles to collect their forces to offer resistance to the royal power. Another change which William I introduced to reduce the power of the great lords was the abolition of the great earldoms — Northumbria, Mercia, and Wessex, that had been established in the reign of the Danish King Canute. Now the country was divided into shires, or counties, as the Normans called them. William I appointed a royal official in each shire to be his “sheriff”. The royal sheriffs became of great importance. Through the sheriffs the king exercised control over all his vassals. The sheriff administered justice in the shire. To make himself stronger than any of his nobles, William the Conqueror ordered that many castles should be built in different parts of the country. They were nearly all royal castles. No other person was allowed to build a castle without the king's permission. William I replaced the Witenagemot by a Great Council, made up of bishops and barons who met together to talk over governmental problems and to give their advice to the king. One of the functions of the Great Council was to act as the king's Supreme Court. The right to belong to the Great Council depended on the holding of land granted by the king. 4. Domesday Book Twenty years after the Conquest William 1 organized the first registration of all the holders of arable land, pastures, all the taxes paid, etc. The villagers used to 27 say that nothing could be concealed from the king's officials just as you would not conceal anything from God on doomsday. The villagers were threatened to be punished on doomsday, that is why the book in which all these accounts were written was called the Domesday Book. The names the new owners of the estates were written down in the official state document, the Domesday Book, the Norman lords were considered now the lawful owners of the English lands. Thus the feudal registration of 1086 consolidated the position of the conquerors. Great changes were brought about in the life of Anglo-Saxon peasantry as a result of the registration organized by William the Conqueror. Before the Conquest many peasants were serfs, or villeins, as they were called in England. The villeins were “bound to the soil and to the lord”. They belonged to the feudal estate, or to the manor, as it was called in England. They were not allowed to leave the lord of the manor. However, alongside with the villeins there were many semi-bondsmen whose services to the lord of the manor were much lighter than those of the villeins. There were also many free peasants. Now all those semi-bond peasants were registered in the Domesday Book as villeins. In addition the peasants had to pay heavier taxes. He continued to collect even the old Danegeld. Thus the Norman Conquest aggravated feudal exploitation and it hastened the process of turning the free peasants into serfs. The Norman conquerors became not only the owners of the English lands but also the masters of the people who lived on it. 5. Life in England after the Conquest In spite of the severe measures taken by William I there were many supporters of his policy. His great supporters were the Norman barons. The Normans enjoyed many privileges in the conquered country. All the members of the Great Council were Normans. All the sheriffs and other royal officials were Normans too. The same was true in the English Church where nearly all the priests, bishops and abbots were also Normans. England was ruled by a foreign king and foreigners occupied all the highest 28 offices. To defend these privileges the Normans who were in the minority in the conquered country had to unite under a strong royal power. And the Norman barons supported William as they were interested in strengthening the royal power which helped them to suppress the Anglo-Saxons. The Conqueror won the support of the Anglo-Saxon lords too. Those who had not fought against him were left in possession of their estates. They became the king's allies in his struggle against those great lords who dared to disobey William I. The Church helped greatly in strengthening the royal power. In return for its support of the Conquest the Church of England, the greatest feudal lord in the country, was granted some privileges. William established separate church courts which decided all cases that concerned marriages, wills and accusations against the clerics. Many new churches and cathedrals were built all over the country. The townspeople supported the royal power too. William the Conqueror took severe measures to establish peace in the country, and now men could travel without fear of being robbed or murdered. In the reign of William the Conqueror there was more trade and traveling than before. More merchants could move about without fear of losing their goods. Towns began to grow and the townspeople paid high taxes to the royal treasury. The townspeople gave William their full support for granting them certain privileges and for protecting trade. Before the Norman Conquest the Anglo-Saxon lords lived in timber houses. After the Norman Conquest strong castles began to appear in each county. At first they were built of wood and later of stone. The first of these stone castles was the Tower of London. The old timber houses were pulled down, and the villagers were forced to build strong castles in which the new lords and their fighting men lived. The Norman noble considered war his chief occupation. Each noble was a knight, or a fully armed warrior. Nobles were trained in warfare from childhood. It was honorable to be a knight and the sons of nobles were trained to become good knights. They were not taught to read and write. They spent their childhood and youth in military training and as they grew up they spent their time in wars or feasting with the guests in the halls оf their castles. 29 The victorious Normans made up the new aristocracy and the Anglo-Saxon people became their servants. The Norman aristocracy spoke a Norman dialect of French, a tongue of Latin origin, while the Anglo-Saxons spoke English. Thus there were two different languages spoken in the country at the same time. Norman-French became the official language of the state. It was the language of the ruling class spoken at court; it was the language of the lawyers, and all the official documents were written in French or Latin. But the peasants and townspeople spoke English. The Normans looked upon English as a kind of peasant dialect, and continued to speak their own language. But the Normans could not subdue the popular language which was spoken by the majority of the population. Many of them married Anglo-Saxon wives and their children and grandchildren grew up speaking English. In a few generations the descendants of the Normans who had come with William the Conqueror learned to speak the mother tongue of the common people of England. In time English became the language of the educated classes and the official language of the state. At the time when the two languages were spoken side by side the AngloSaxons learned many French words and expressions which gradually came into the English language. As a result of the Conquest, the English language changed greatly under the influence of the French language. The two languages gradually formed one rich English language which already in the 14th century was being used both in speech and in writing. Gradually the Normans mixed with the Anglo-Saxons and the Danes and from this mixture the English nation finally emerged. QUESTIONS FOR CONTROL 1. What kingdoms were more powerful at the end of the 8th century and what become the strongest at the beginning of the 9th century? 2. Why was the unification of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms into one kingdom in the 9th century necessary? 30 3. Who was the first king of England? What were his rights? 4. Speak about the raids of Danes on Britain. What was the difference between their early and later raids? 5. What kind of people were Danes and how did they differ from Anglo-Saxons? 6. What were the conditions of the treaty concluded in 886? What is Danelaw? 7. Speak about the Danish raids on Britain in the 10th-11th centuries. Why did they speed up the impoverishment of the peasants? What is Danegeld? 8. What had happened with Danes in the 11th century? 9. What were the reasons and the pretext for the Norman invasion? 10.What can you tell about William the Conqueror? 11.What facts prove that the Norman army was greatly superior to the Anglo-Saxon army? 12.What battle took place near Hastings and what were the reasons for the defeat of the Anglo-Saxons? 13.Prove that William the Conqueror became the greatest feudal lord of England after the Norman conquest. 14.How did William the Conqueror reward the barons who had helped him to conquer the country? 15.What prevented the feudal lords in England from becoming as powerful and independent as those in France in the 11th century? 16.What made it possible for William to strengthen his royal power so greatly? Who were his allies? 17. When did the first registration of people take place? 18.What was the Domesday Book? Why was it called so? 19. What useful information does Domesday Book give us about England in the second half of the 11th century? 20. How did the registration consolidate the position of the Norman conquerors in England? 31 13. What effect did the Norman Conquest have upon the development of feudalism in England? Prove that the Conquest resulted in greater feudal exploitation in England. 14. Describe the way of life of a Norman noble. What were his main occupations? 15. How did the Normans live in England? 16. What was the effect of Norman Conquest on English language and development of culture? LECTURE 3 DEVELOPMENT OF TOWNS AND CRAFTS IN THE X-XIIITH CENTURIES. DEVELOPMENT OF CULTURE Plan: 1. Appearance of towns. 2. The artisan’s workshop. 3. Medieval guilds. 4. Culture in Middle ages. 1. Appearance of towns By the end of the 10th century new towns appeared in England. Such old towns as London, Winchester, York grew into centres of trade and crafts. The Domesday Book mentions about 80 towns where 5 per cent of the population lived. In the 11th-12th centuries the towns were very small. London had only 20,000 people but it was considered a large centre of population. An average town had from six to four thousand people. By the 13th century there were already more than 160 towns in England. But most of the towns were still quite small. Most of these early towns did not differ very much from the villages. London was then the largest city in the country. But many districts which are now in the heart of London were then separate villages or forests. Towns were surrounded by walls which had a number of gates, guarded by 32 gate-keepers, who opened them at dawn and locked them at sunset. Outside the town were the fields which came right up to the walls of the town. Three arable fields were divided into strips and the townspeople grew crops in then. There were common pastures and meadows where they fed their cattle and geese. In such a town a man could be a smith or a carpenter or a weaver, but he was also a tiller of the soil. As time went on a baker or a weaver would find it less and less possible to do both things at once. He preferred to spend all his days working at his craft and to buy most of his food instead of growing it. Nearly all the houses in the town were made of wood and frequent fires would destroy whole districts. Very few houses had their own water-supply. The shops where different goods were sold were on the ground floor. The workshop where the craftsmen worked was also on the ground floor and the owner and his family lived upstairs. There was an important difference between the first towns and the villages: while the villagers produced the necessities of life mainly for consumption, the townspeople produced goods for sale. Crafts and trade began to develop now on a larger scale than before. The growth of towns was a new and very significant stage in the development of feudal society. The land on which the towns grew belonged either to the king, baron, or abbot, and the people of the first towns had to pay for it by working for the lord of the manor. The medieval workshop was a small-scale enterprise where there was no division of labour and only manual labour was used. At first there was no clear division between the craftsmen who made the goods and the trader who sold them — both functions were performed by the same person. The workshop was a kind of shop for the sale of goods produced in the same workshop. Later trade grew too and craftsmen separated themselves from selling their goods. 2. The artisan’s workshop The medieval workshop was a small-scale enterprise. It occupied a small room and only a few people worked in it. They were the master-craftsman, one or two 33 journeymen and two or three apprentices. As a rule, the members of the master’s family worked in the workshop too. There was no machinery in the workshop. Only primitive hand instruments such as knives, hammers, drills, files or hand-operated tools. The medieval workshop was based on manual labour. Although the master-craftsman was the owner of these tools and instruments, raw materials and ready articles, he himself worked side by side with the men whom he employed. It took many years to become a good craftsman. Any young boy who wanted to learn a craft had to become an apprentice to a master. The apprentice had no right to leave his master before he completed the term of his apprenticeship. He lived with his master who gave him food, clothes and shoes and promised to teach him all the secrets of the craft. The apprentice did the less skilled jobs in the workshop and had to help with the housework in his master’s home. The life of the apprentice was very hard. He was bound to work for his master for seven or even more years and during these years his master often scolded and beat him hard. After seven years the apprentice would become a workman and for his hard work he would receive wages. The workmen were called journeymen - from the French joiirnee, meaning “day”, because they were paid by the day. They were free to change their master and even to look for work in another town. The medieval workshop was, thus, a small-scale enterprise where there was no division of labour and only manual labour was used. The labour productivity of the medieval craftsman was very low. For example, it took a skilled locksmith fourteen days to make a good lock. As the population of the towns grew and more goods were demanded, both crafts and trade grew too and they required more time and energy and skill. The craftsmen began to devote themselves entirely to their crafts. Alongside with the travelling merchants, tradesmen engaged in home trade appeared. They made up a special class of men who devoted all their time and energy to the business of trading. Thus trade and handicrafts gradually became the occupations of different groups of townspeople. 34 3. Medieval guilds The master-craftsmen of the same trade who lived in the same town united into societies which were called craft guilds. Each craft had its own guild. The right to organize a guild was granted by the owner of the land (king, abbot or powerful lord). Nobody had the right to produce or sell goods in a town if he was not a member of a guild. Each guild in the town had its guildhall where the master-craftsmen met from time to time. The charter they adopted for their guild obliged all the guild-members to follow its rules. The charter set up a certain standard for the finished product. There were severe punishments for those who broke the rules. The master-craftsmen elected the elders who headed the guild and saw that all the guild-members followed the rules. The guild fixed prices on the articles. The guild charter designated how many journeymen and apprentices the master could employ and how many hand-operated tools could he keep in the workshop. Other rules did not allow the craftsmen to work at night and on holidays. These rules were made in order to help each small producer to sell his goods and to prevent the craftsmen from competing with one another. In the 11th-13th centuries when the town crafts began to grow the guild system was of great importance. The guild was a military organization; it had its municipal guard detachment and a levy of guildsmen to fight against the enemies of the town. It was also a religious society. A merchant or a craftsman was supposed to be a Christian. The guildsmen went to church together. They had their own saint that was considered the patron of their craft. Often they built their own chapel where a priest conducted services in honour of their patron saint. On holy days the guild arranged joint festivities. All the guildsmen contributed to the Church. The guild had a special fund to help needy craftsmen and their families. If a guildsman fell into debt through illness or accident the guild would help him to start anew. If he died his guild would take care of his wife and children. Besides, the guild protected its members from the competition of the nonguildsmen. In the 11th-13th centuries natural economy still existed in England and the bulk of the population produced all the necessities of life themselves. That is why the demand for goods at the market was very low and the competition of the non35 guildsmen was dangerous. It was very important for the townsmen to produce articles of higher quality than those produced by the village artisans. The guild also tried to prevent competition among the guildsmen themselves. It forbade them to win over each other’s customers; it limited the production of each workshop so as to ensure the sale of goods for every craftsman. A system of payment by money instead of by services grew up in towns. As a result, the number of craftsmen in towns increased and new crafts appeared. English craftsmen became highly skilled and some of the goods they produced were among the best in Europe. Of all trades the most important to England was the wool trade. 4. Culture in Middle ages Christian ideology was predominant in feudal Europe, and England was no exception to the rule. The majority of the cathedrals and monasteries were built late in the 11th and early in the 12th cc. primarily by French architects and craftsmen in the so-called Romanesque style. Later on Gothic architecture was introduced. During the reign of the first Norman kings after the Conquest, three languages existed side by side within the kingdom: Latin as the language of the clergy and the learned, French as the language of polite intercourse and English as the language of the wide masses of the people. The English, or rather, the Anglo-Norman literature of the 11th-13th cc. reflected the complicated linguistic situation quite faithfully: church literature was in Latin, the so-called chivalric poetry was predominantly French, while folk-lore continued to develop in Anglo-Saxon. QUESTIONS FOR CONTROL 1. What caused the rise of the first towns in the 11th century? 2. Why did the separation of crafts from agriculture take place in the 10th – 11th centuries and not earlier? 3. How did medieval towns differ from villages? 4. How did the craftsmen live? 5. What kind of enterprise was the medieval workshop? 36 6. Describe the life of apprentice and journeyman. What were the differences between them? 7. What was the medieval guild? How was it administered? 8. What urgent problems did the first townspeople have to solve? How did the guild system help them to solve the problems they faced? 9. What role did the medieval guild play in the life of its members? 10.What was the Guild’s Charter about? 11. What do you think caused the division of labour? 12. What caused the separation of trade from crafts? 13. How did the architecture of the towns develop? 14. What styles were predominant in architecture in the 11-12th centuries? 15. What languages dominated in the life of Englishmen in the 12th century? LECTURE 4 ENGLAND IN MIDDLE AGES Plan: 1. William the Conqueror and his successors. 2. Coalition of barons against the king. The first Parliament. 3. Relations between England and Scotland. 4. Capital of England. 5. The system of justice in middle ages. 6. Development of society. 7. The time of wars, plagues and revolts. 8. Social and cultural development of England in Late Middle Ages. 1. William the Conqueror and his successors William organised his English kingdom according to the feudal system. The central idea was that all land was owned by the king but it was held by others, called “vassals”, in return for services and goods. 37 William controlled two large areas: Normandy, which he had been given by his father, and England, which he had won in the war. Both were personal possessions. To William the important difference between Normandy and England was that as duke of Normandy he had to recognize the king of France as a lord, whereas in England he was king with no lord above him. This control of land in both France and England was until the 16th century. It created great problems, as kings of England were obliged to divide their attention between their possessions. Kings of France became annoyed by the fact that English monarchs controlled land in France which, they believed, should belong to the French monarchy. As a consequence, wars between England and France became a common feature of the history from this time on. William I died in 1087 and left three sons to dispute his inheritance. The middle one, also called William was the first to reach England. He was the King of England known as “Rufus” from the redness of his face. Politically and military successful, Rufus became unpopular with the Church because of his treatment of it, though he had a very high reputation in knightly circles. He was killed by an arrow in 1100, while hunting. Rufus was succeeded in England by his younger brother Henry I. Robert who had taken part in the capture of Jerusalem (1099), returned to Normandy in 1100 and in 1101 invaded England. The two brothers met in battle in 1106. Robert was beaten and condemned to perpetual imprisonment in England until his death in 1134. Henry became the master of both England and Normandy. Henry was a powerful ruler. He enforced the law with the help of a team of judges, holding court in the main towns. The circuit system is still in operation today. Henry also set up the Exchequer to supervise monetary and fiscal matters. This is still does. England had the most centrally organized government in Europe. Henry had one son, William who died in 1120. The succession to the crown was in dispute. Henry had a daughter Matilda. She was hard and capable but, as a woman, was unacceptable to the barons as their ruler. In 1136 when Henry I died, Matilda was pushed aside by Stephen, son of Adela, the daughter of William the Conqueror. Stephen was King from 1135-54, but 38 he was opposed by Matilda, who wanted the throne first for herself and then her son Henry. There was Civil War until 1153, when by Treaty of Winchester it was agreed that Stephen should rule until his death. In the death of Stephen, it was agreed that Henry should become King. In 1154 Henry became the master of England. Henry’s emblem was a plant called Planta genesta; so his dynasty was called the Plantagenet dynasty. Henry held the great empire together by his ability and energy. In England he re-established the authority of the centre after the weak government of Stephen’s reign. He created the common law system, according to which every freeman had a right to plead in royal courts, even against his feudal lords. Henry also remodeled the Exchequer, which, being responsible for the collection of taxes was at the centre of royal government. When Henry II died in 1189 he was succeeded as King by his son, Richard, called Richard the Lion Hearted. Richard was the military, as a King of England he was a disaster. He spent short period of time in England, other time he was campaigning in France, Sicily and Palestine. He was killed in the struggle in 1199. Having no legitimate children, Richard was succeeded by his brother John. John was faced with three main problems. The power of the English nobility was increasing; the possessions of the English kings in France were daily becoming more difficult to defend; and the Church was eager to gather into its hands as much power as possible. 2. Coalition of barons against the king. The first Parliament John tried to maintain his position over the Church and many of the nobility. His clash with the clergy caused England to be placed under Papal interdict between 1208 to 1213. John became the vassal of the pope. The pope became John’s closest ally. The war with the papacy and the French war had meant that John had increased taxation and had used every available means of collecting the money. The Church had been angry, first at the war with the papacy, and secondly at the King’s surrender to the pope. Thus, in 1215 the richest and the most powerful sections of English society — the aristocracy, the Church and the merchants - formed a coalition against the King. John’s opponents obliged him to agree to the terms of Magna Carta, or the 39 Great Charter. This charter of liberties was a condemnation of John’s use of feudal, judicial and other governmental powers, for it defined and limited royal rights. Baronial liberties were protected and freemen were provided with some guaranties against royal actions. The king promised all “freemen” protection from his officers, and the right to a fair and legal trial. John had no intention of agreeing Magna Carta without a fight. The war with the barons continued. John died in 1216. England was deep in war. His son Henry became the King Henry III. The years of Henry’s rule were marked by a series of minor crises in which the baronage tried to strengthen their position, often on the basis laid by Magna Carta. In 1258 a council of 15 people was appointed to direct the government of the country. Edward I, the son of Henry III brought together the first real parliament. The parliament included only nobles. It had been able to make statutes, or written laws, and it had been able to make political decisions. However, the lords were less able to provide the king with money. But Edward I was the first to create a “representative institution” which could provide the money he needed. This institution became the House of Commons. Unlike the House of Lords it contained a mixture of “gentry” (knights and other wealthy freemen from the shires) and merchants from the towns. These were the two broad classes of people who produced and controlled England’s wealth. In 1275 Edward I commanded each shire and each town to send two representatives to his parliament. Edward I was less interested in winning back parts of France than in bringing the rest of Britain under his control. William I had allowed his lords to win land by conquest in Wales. The conquered people became vassals of the English king. In 1284 Edward I united west Wales with England, bringing the English county system to the newly conquered lands. The English considered that Wales had become part of England for all practical purposes. If the Welsh wanted a prince, they could have one. At a public ceremony Edward I made his own baby son (later Edward II) Prince of Wales. From that time the eldest son of the ruling king or queen has usually been made Prince of Wales. 40 3. Relations between England and Scotland In Scotland things were very different. Although Scottish kings had sometimes accepted the English king as their “overlord”, they were much stronger than the many Welsh kings had been. By the eleventh century there was only one king of Scots, and he ruled over all the south and east of Scotland. Only a few areas of the western coast were still completely independent. But only the English king with a large army could hope to defeat the Scots. Most English kings did not even try, but Edward I was different. The Scottish kings were closely connected with England. Since Saxon times, marriages had frequently taken place between the Scottish and English royal families. Scotland followed England in creating a feudal state. However, the tribal “clan” system continued to exist in the Highlands. Some Scottish kings held land in England, just as English kings held lands in France. In 1290 a crisis took place over the succession to the Scottish throne. There were thirteen possible heirs. In order to avoid civil war the Scottish nobles invited Edward I to settle the matter. He invaded Scotland and put one of them, John de Balliol, who accepted his overlordship before he would help to settle the question, on the Scottish throne. Edward tried to make Scotland a part of England, as he had done with Wales. Some Scottish nobles accepted him, but the people refused to be ruled by the English king. However, neither he nor his successors became kings of Scots. 4. Capital of England There was no real capital of the kingdom as there is today. Kings were crowned in Westminster, but their treasury stayed in the old Wessex capital, Winchester. When William and the kings after him moved around the country staying in towns and castles, they were accompanied by a large number of followers. Wherever they went the local people had to give them food and somewhere to stay. This system needed people who could administer taxation, justice, and carry out the king’s instructions. At first this “administration” was based in Winchester, but by the 41 time of Edward I, in 1290, it had moved to Westminster. It is still there today. 5. The system of justice in Middle Ages The king, of course, was responsible for law and justice. But kings usually had to leave the administration of this important matter to someone who lived close to the place where a crime was committed. Henry I introduced the idea that all crimes, even inside the family, were not a family matter but a breaking of the “king’s peace”. So he appointed a number of judges who traveled from place to place administering justice. At first the king’s judges had no special knowledge or training. They were nobles or bishops who followed directly the orders of the king. England was unlike the rest of Europe because it used common law. English lawyers created their own system of law based on customs, comparisons, previous cases and previous decisions. In England trial by ordeal was replaced with trial by jury. In 1179 Henry II allowed an accused man in certain cases to claim “trial by jury”. The man could choose twelve neighbours, who would help him prove that he was not guilty. Slowly, during the later Middle Ages, the work of these juries gradually changed from giving evidence to judging the evidence of others. 6. Development of society In 1066 there were 50 religious houses in England, home for perhaps 1,000 monks and nuns. By the beginning of the fourteenth century there were probably about 900 religious houses, with 17,500 members. (Even though the population in the fourteenth century was three times larger than it had been in 1066, the growth of the monasteries is impressive.) A monk could learn to read and write, and be sure of food and shelter. The monasteries were centres of wealth and learning. By 1300 the population was probably over four million, about three times what it had been in 1066. This increase, of course, had an effect on life in the country. It 42 made it harder to grow enough food for everyone. Unfortunately, agricultural skills improved little during this period. Neither peasants nor landlords had the necessary knowledge or understanding to develop them. Many villagers tried to increase their income by other activities and became blacksmith, carpenters, tillers and it is from the 13th century that many villages became known by their trade name. The growth of literacy in England was closely connected with the twelfthcentury Renaissance, a cultural movement which had first started in Italy. Schools of learning were established in many towns and cities. Some were “grammar” schools independent of the Church, while others were attached to a cathedral. All of these schools taught Latin, because most books were written in this language and it was the educated language of almost all Europe. In England two schools of higher education were established, the first at Oxford and the second at Cambridge, at the end of the 12th century. 7. The time of wars, plagues and revolts The fourteenth century was disastrous for Britain as well as most of Europe, because of the effects of wars and plagues. After Edward I’s attempt to take over Scotland in 1295, the Scots turned to the obvious ally, the king of France, for whom there were clear advantages in an alliance with Scotland. This alliance lasted into the sixteenth century. France benefited more than Scotland from it, but both countries agreed that whenever England attacked one of them, the other would make trouble behind England’s back. To make his position stronger, the king of France began to interfere with England’s trade. French control of two English areas, Gascony and Burgundy, was a direct threat to England’s wealth. Edward III declared war on France in 1337. He claimed the right to the French Crown through his mother. It is unlikely that anyone, except for the English, took his claim very seriously, but it was a good enough reason for starting a war. The war Edward began, later called the Hundred Years War, did not finally end until 1453, with the English Crown losing all its possessions in France 43 except for Calais, a northern French port. In 1348 was the terrible plague, known as the Black Death, which reached almost every part of Britain during 1348-1349. Probably more than one-third of the entire population of Britain died. The Black Death was neither the first natural disaster of the fourteenth century, nor the last. Plagues had killed sheep and other animals earlier in the century. An agricultural crisis resulted from the growth in population and the need to produce more food. Land was no longer allowed to rest one year in three, which meant that it was over-used, resulting in years of famine when the harvest failed. This process had already begun to slow down population growth by 1300. After the Black Death there were other plagues during the rest of the century which killed mostly the young and healthy. In 1300 the population of Britain had probably been over four million. By the end of the century it was probably hardly half that figure, and only in the seventeenth century the population reached four million again. There had been some economic changes during the fourteenth century. The most important of these was the replacement of wool by finished cloth as England’s main export. It is surprising that the English never rebelled against Edward III. He was an expensive king at a time when many people were miserably poor and sick with plagues. At the time of the Black Death he was busy with expensive wars against France and Scotland. The demands he made on merchants and peasants were enormous, but Edward III handled these people with skill. Edward’s grandson, Richard, was less fortunate. He became king on his grandfather's death in 1377, as his father The Black Prince died some months before. He had neither the diplomatic skill of his grandfather, nor the popularity of his father. Added to this he became king when he was only eleven, and so others governed for him. In the year he became king, these advisers introduced a tax payment for every person over the age of fifteen. Two years later, this tax was enforced again and the people paid. 44 But in 1381 this tax was enforced for a third time and also increased to three times the previous amount. There was an immediate revolt in East Anglia and in Kent, two of the richer parts of the country. The Peasants’ Revolt, as it was called, which lasted for four weeks was the first sign of growing discontent with the state. During the next century discontent with the Church also grew. There had already been a few attacks on Church property in towns controlled by the Church. The greed of the Church was one obvious reason for its unpopularity. The Church was a feudal power, and often treated its peasants and townspeople with as much cruelty as the nobles did. There was another reason why the people of England disliked paying taxes to the pope. Edward’s wars in France were beginning to make the English conscious of their “Englishness” and the pope was a foreigner. It seemed obvious to the English that the pope must be on the French side, and that the taxes they paid to the Church were actually helping France against England. This was a matter on which the king and people in England agreed. The king reduced the amount of tax money the pope could raise in Britain, and made sure that most of it found its way into his own treasury instead. At the end of the fourteenth century new religious ideas appeared in England which were dangerous to Church authority, and were condemned as heresy. This heresy was known as “Lollardy”. Richard's successor, Henry IV, was not sympathetic to lollardy. He was deeply loyal to the Church, and in 1401 introduced into England for the first time the idea of executing the Lollards by burning. Richard’s ruthless behaviour began a bloody period in English history. After Henry’s seizure of the crown, the House of Lancaster, to which Henry IV belonged, didn’t rule in peace. The House of Lancaster sprang from John of Gaunt, son Edward III. But Edward III had had 11 children, and the House of York, through the House of Mortimer, had a stronger claim to the crown. The battles between the Houses of Lancaster and York, which lasted from 1455 till 1485, are known as the Wars of the Roses. (The emblem of the House of Lancaster was a red rose, and that of the House of York was a white rose.) 45 By the end of the fourteenth century, the long war with France, known as the Hundred Years War, had already been going on for over fifty years. But there had been long periods without actual fighting. 8. Social and cultural development of England in Late Middle Ages Society in England was still based upon rank. At the top were dukes, earls and other lords, although there were far fewer as a result of war. Below these great lords were knights. Edward I had ordered that those with an income of 20 a year must be made knights. Next to the gentlemen were the ordinary freemen of the towns. By the end of the Middle Ages, it was possible for a serf from the countryside to work for seven years in a town craft guild, and to become a “freemen” of the town where they lived. The freemen controlled the life of a town. Meanwhile, in the towns, a new middle class was developing. By the fifteenth century most merchants were well educated, and considered themselves to be the equals of the gentlemen of the countryside. The lawyers were another class of city people. In London they were considered equal in importance to the big merchants and cloth manufacturers. The development of Parliament at this time showed the beginnings of a new relationship between the middle class and the king. Edward I had invited knights from the country and merchants from the towns to his parliament because he wanted money and they, more than any other group, could provide it during the time of Edward III’s reign Parliament became organized in two parts: the Lords, and the Commons, which represented the middle class. Only those commoners with an income of forty shillings or more a year could qualify to be members of Parliament. This meant that the poor had no way of being heard except by rebellion. The poor had no voice of their own in Parliament until the middle of the 19th century. The king’s courts could not deal with all the work. In 1363 Edward III appointed “justices of the peace” to deal with smaller crimes and offences, and to hold court four times a year. Little is known about the life of women in the Middle Ages, but without doubt 46 it was hard. The Church taught that women should obey their husbands. It also spread two very different ideas about women: that they should be pure and holy like the Virgin Mary; and that, like Eve, they could not be trusted and were a moral danger to men. Once married, a woman had to accept her husband as her master. A disobedient wife was usually beaten. The first duty of every wife was to give her husband children, preferably sons. The wife of a noble had other responsibilities. When her lord was away, she was in charge of the manor and the village lands, all the servants and villagers, the harvest and the animals. She also had to defend the manor if it was attacked. She had to run the household, welcome visitors, and store enough food, including salted meat, for winter. She was expected to have enough knowledge of herbs and plants to make suitable medicines for those in the village who were sick. She had little time for her own children, who in any case were often sent away at the age of eight to another manor, the boys to “be made into man”. Most women, of course, were peasants, busy making food, making cloth and making clothes from the cloth. They worked in the fields, looked after the children, the geese, the pigs and the sheep, made the cheese and grew the vegetables. With the spread of literacy, cultural life in Britain naturally developed also. In the cities, plays were performed at important religious festivals. They were called “mystery plays” because of the mysterious nature of events in the Bible, and they were a popular form of culture. The language itself was changing. French had been used less and less by the Norman rulers during the 13th century. In the 14th century Edward III had actually forbidden the speaking of French in his army. By the end of the 14th century, however, English was once again a written language, because it was being used instead of French by the ruling, literate class. But “Middle English”, the language of the 14th and 15th centuries, was very different from Anglo-Saxon. This was partly because it had not been written for three hundred years, and partly because it had borrowed so much from Norman French. Bу the end of the Middle Ages, English as well as Latin was being used in legal writing, and also in elementary schools. Education developed enormously 47 during the fifteenth century, and many schools were founded by powerful men. There was a growing need for educated people who could administer the government, the Church, the law and trade. Clerks started grammar schools where students could learn the skills of reading and writing. These schools offered their pupils a future in the Church or the civil service, or at the universities of Oxford and Cambridge. The Middle Ages ended with a major technical development: William Caxton’s first English printing press, set up in 1476. Caxton’s printing press was as dramatic for his age as radio, television and the technological revolution are for our own. QUESTIONS FOR CONTROL 1. What changes did William the Conqueror make in England during his reign? 2. Who inherited England after William the Conqueror? 3. How did Stephen become the king of England? 4. Who is the beginner of the Plantagenet dynasty? 5. What is Henry II famous for? 6. Why was Richard the Lion Hearted called a disaster for England? 7. What problems was John, Richard’s successors, faced with? 8. What is Magna Carta? When and what for was it written? 9. When was the first Parliament summoned? 10. How did Edward I change the Parliament? 11. What was done by Edward I for unification of the country? 12. Describe the process of unification of England and Scotland. 13. Where was the government situated? 14. How did the system of justice change in the 11-12th centuries? 15. Why did the number of religious houses grow in the early Middle Ages? 16. What universities were formed in the middle of 13th century? 17. How can you characterize the 14th century? 18. What was the reason for the war between England and France? How long did it last? 19. What were the results of Hundred’s Years War with France? 48 20. Tell about the plague of 1348. 21. Did ordinary people agree with their position? What rebellion took place in 1381? How did it end? 22. What changes took place in religion of England? What was heresy? 23. What was the reason for the Wars of the Roses and was it a romantic event? 24. What was the structure of society in the Middle Ages? 25. Which two parts was the Parliament divided to? When? What for? 26. How can you explain the meaning “justices of the peace”? 27. What was the position of women in late Middle Ages? 28. What were the great cultural achievements of that age? MODULE 2 HISTORY OF ENGLAND IN XV-XX CENTURIES LECTURE 1 ENGLAND DURING TUDOR TIMES Plan: 1. Kings Henry VII and Henry VIII Tudor. 2. Edward VI and Mary Tudor. 3. England during Elizabeth I Tudor. 4. Development of Parliament. 5. Life in Towns and Country. 6. Language and Culture. 1. Kings Henry VII and Henry VIII Tudor The century of Tudor rule (1485-1603) is often thought of as a most glorious period in English history. Henry VII built the foundations of a wealthy nation state and a powerful monarchy. His son, Henry VIII, kept a magnificent court, and made the Church in England truly English by breaking away from the Roman Catholic 49 Church. Finally, his daughter Elizabeth brought glory to the new state by defeating the powerful navy of Spain, the greatest European power of the time. During the Tudor age England experienced one of the greatest artistic periods in its history. Henry VII is less well known than either Henry VIII or Elizabeth I. But he was more important in establishing the new monarchy than either of them. He had the same ideas and opinions as the growing classes of merchants and gentleman farmers, and he based the royal power on good business sense. Henry VII firmly believed that war and glory were bad for business, and that business was good for the state. He avoided quarrels with Scotland and France. During the 15th century England’s trading position had been badly damaged. Henry VII was fortunate. Many of the old nobility had died or been defeated in the recent wars, and their lands had gone to the king. This meant that Henry had more power and more money than earlier kings. In order to establish his authority he forbade anyone, except himself, to keep armed men. The king had to be respected, feared and obeyed. Henry’s aim was to make the Crown financially independent, and the lands and the fines he took from the old nobility helped him do this. He never spent money unless he had to. He was careful to keep the friendship of the merchant and lesser gentry classes. Like him they wanted peace and prosperity. He created a new nobility from among them. The peaceful country that he left Henry VIII was a testimony to Henry VII’s ability and success. Henry understood earlier than most people that England’s future wealth would depend on international trade. And in order to trade, Henry realized that England should have its own fleet of merchant ships and he spent a lot of money for that. Henry VIII’s reign, who became the king after Henry VII, was to be most notable for the “break from Rome”, the nationalization of the English Church and the beginnings of the English Reformation. Henry VIII was quite unlike his father. He was cruel, wasteful with money, and interested in pleasing himself. He wanted to become an important person in European politics, but after Hundred Years War France was now more powerful than England, and Spain was even more powerful, 50 because it was united with the Holy Roman Empire. Henry’s failure to gain an important position in European politics was a bitter disappointment. He spent so much on wars from which England had little to gain, that his father’s carefully saved money was soon gone. In this serious financial crisis, Henry needed money. One way of doing this was by reducing the amount of silver used in coins. It was a damaging policy, and the English coinage was reduced to a seventh of its value within twentyfive years. Henry VIII was always looking for new sources of money. His father had become powerful by taking over the nobles’ land, but the lands owned by the Church and the monasteries had not been touched. The Church was a huge landowner, and the monasteries were no longer important to economic and social growth in the way they had been two hundred years earlier. In fact they were unpopular because many monks no longer led a good religious life but lived in wealth and comfort. In 1531 Henry persuaded the bishops to make him head of the Church in England, and this became law after Parliament passed the Act of Supremacy in 1534. Henry was now free to divorce Catherine and marry his new love, Anne Boleyn. He hoped she would give him a son to follow him on the throne. He married Anne, had a daughter, Elizabeth, by her and bastardized Mary by the Act of Succession; and then, suspecting Anne of adultery, had her executed and declared his marriage to her void, thus bastardizing Elizabeth (1536); before marrying Jane Seymore and having a son, Edward (1537). Like his father, Henry VIII governed England through his close advisers. But when he broke with Rome, he used Parliament to make the break legal. Through several Acts of Parliament between 1532 and 1536, England became politically a Protestant country, even though the popular religion was still Catholic. Once England had accepted the separation from Rome Henry took the English Reformation a step further. Between 1536 and 1539 - 560 monasteries and other religious houses were closed. Henry did this in order to make money, but he also wanted to be popular with the rising classes of landowners and merchants. He therefore gave or sold much of the monasteries’ lands to them. Many smaller 51 landowners made their fortunes. Meanwhile the monks and nuns were thrown out. Some were given small sums of money, but many were unable to find work and became wandering beggars. The dissolution of the monasteries was probably the greatest act of official destruction in the history of Britain. Unlike his father, Henry VIII had spent much money on warships and guns, making English guns the best in Europe. Henry VIII did not share his father’s love of Wales. He wanted the Welsh to become English. Between 1536 and 1543 Wales became joined to England under one administration. English law was now the only law for Wales. Local Welshmen were appointed as JPs, so that the Welsh gentry became part of the ruling English establishment. Those parts of Wales which had not been “shared” were now organized like English counties. Welshmen entered the English Parliament. English became the official language. Henry VIII wanted to bring Ireland under his authority, as he had done with Wales. He tried to persuade the Irish parliament to recognize him as king of Ireland. Henry VIII failed to get what he wanted in Ireland. In fact he made things worse by bringing Irish nationalism and Catholicism together against English rule. After Catherine of Aragon, Henry married five more times. His last wife outlived him, but by then two had been divorced, one had died in childbirth, and two more were executed. Henry was cruel and egoistic. For reasons of state he executed Thomas More, the leading humanist scholar of the day and, later, a saint of the Roman Catholic Church. Henry dispensed with his two great ministers, Wolsey and Cromwell, without regret. 2. Edward VI and Mary Tudor The only son of Henry VIII, Edward became King Edward VI in 1547. He was only nine. The regency council set up by Henry before his death to rule during Edward’s minority was dominated by Protestants. They were keen Protestant reformers because they had benefited from the sale of monastery lands. Indeed, all 52 the new landowners knew that they could only be sure of keeping their new lands if they made England truly Protestant. Most English people still believed in the old Catholic religion. Less than half the English were Protestant by belief. In 1552 a new prayer book was introduced to make sure that all churches followed the new Protestant religion. Most people were not very happy with the new religion. Edward was a sickly boy, and in 1552 it was clear that he would not live much longer. England was afraid of the succession of Edward’s half-sister, Mary, the daughter of Catherine of Aragon, who was an ardent Catholic. Regency council persuaded the king to name Lady Jane Grey heir to the throne. She was the granddaughter of Henry VII. When Edward died in 1553 Jane was proclaimed queen, but she received any support, and Mary Tudor took the throne with little trouble. Lady Jane, an innocent and tragic figure, was executed. Mary devoted herself to the restoration of the Catholic religion in England. It was not difficult to restore the old services and doctrines, but it was impossible for the Church to regain the property it had lost during the Reformation. A number of Protestants refused to change their religion, and those who openly defied Mary were executed. This harsh policy did not stamp out Protestantism, the Queen earned the title of “Bloody Mary”. She was supported by the ordinary people, who were angered by the greed of the Protestant nobles. The marriage of a queen was therefore a difficult matter. If Mary married an Englishman she would be under the control of a man of lesser importance. If she married a foreigner it might place England under foreign control. Mary, for political, religious and family reasons, chose to marry King Philip of Spain. Mary hoped that Philip would bring the resources of Spain to her aid in the difficult task of Catholicising England. Philip in turn looked for the support of English military and sea power. Philip had little liking for England and the English. They also disliked him and saw in the connection with Spain only trouble and expense. Mary and Philip had no children and Mary was faced with the unpleasant fact 53 that when she died she would be succeeded by her half-sister, Elizabeth. Mary was deeply suspicious of Elizabeth’s hasty conversion to Catholicism, and feared — as it turned out, with justification — that on her death Elizabeth, and England with her, would abandon Rome. 3. England during Elizabeth I Tudor Elizabeth I’s reign was notable for its longevity. She was Queen for 44 years. Elizabeth came straight to the throne aged 25 out of near-imprisonment. Elizabeth aimed to accommodate the views of as many people as possible in a national Church. Continued adherence to Rome was impossible. The Roman Catholic Church had condemned the marriage of her mother, Anne Boleyn, to Henry VIII, and Elizabeth was their offspring. When she became queen in 1558, Elizabeth I wanted to find a peaceful answer to the problems of the English Reformation. She wanted to bring together again those parts of English society which were in religious disagreement. And she wanted to make England prosperous. In some ways the kind of Protestantism finally agreed in 1559 remained closer to the Catholic religion than to other Protestant groups. But Elizabeth made sure that the Church was still under her authority, unlike politically dangerous forms of Protestantism in Europe. In a way, she made the Church part of the state machine. The “parish”, the area served by one church, usually the same size as a village, became the unit of state administration. People had to go to church on Sundays by law and they were fined if they stayed away. This meant that the parish priest, the “parson” or “vicar”, became almost as powerful as the village squire. Elizabeth also arranged for a book of sermons to be used in church. Although most of the sermons consisted of Bible teaching, this book also taught the people that rebellion against the Crown was a sin against God. The struggle between Catholics and Protestants continued to endanger Elizabeth’s position for the next thirty years. Both France and Spain were Catholic. Elizabeth and her advisers wanted to avoid open quarrels with both of them. This was 54 not easy, because both the French and Spanish kings wanted to marry Elizabeth and so join England to their own country. Mary, the Scottish queen, usually called “Queen of Scots”, was the heir to the English throne because she was Elizabeth’s closest living relative. Elizabeth, however, kept Mary as a prisoner for almost twenty years. During that time she discovered several secret Catholic plots, some of which clearly aimed at making Mary queen of England. When Elizabeth finally agreed to Mary’s execution in 1587, it was partly because Mary had named Philip as her heir to the throne of England, and because with this claim Philip of Spain had decided to invade England. Philip decided to conquer England in 1587. He hoped that enough Catholics in England would be willing to help him but Spanish ships were defeated. Before and after the war with Spain Elizabeth followed two policies. She encouraged English sailors to continue to attack and destroy Spanish ships bringing gold, silver and other treasures back from the newly discovered continent of America. She also encouraged English traders to settle abroad and to create colonies. This second policy led directly to Britain’s colonial empire of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The first English colonists sailed to America and brought tobacco back to England. During Elizabeth’s reign many trade companies were established. Ireland became England’s first important colony. The effect of English rule was greatest in the north, in Ulster, where the Irish tribes had fought longest. Here, after the Tudor conquest, lands were taken and sold to English and Scottish merchants. The native Irish were forced to leave or to work for these settlers. 4. Development of Parliament During the Tudor period the changes in government, society and the economy of England were more far-reaching than they had been for centuries. The Tudor monarchs did not like governing through Parliament. Henry VII had used Parliament only for law making. He seldom called it together. Henry VIII had used it first to raise money for his military adventures, and then for his struggle with Rome. 55 Tudor monarchs were certainly not more democratic than earlier kings, but by using Parliament to strengthen their policy, they actually increased Parliament’s authority. Only two things persuaded Tudor monarchs not to get rid of Parliament altogether: they needed money and they needed the support of the merchants and landowners. In the early sixteenth century Parliament only met when the monarch ordered it. Sometimes it met twice in one year, but then it might not meet again for six years. During the century power moved from the House of Lords to the House of Commons. The reason for this was simple. The Members of Parliament (MPs) in the Commons represented richer and more influential classes than the Lords. In fact, the idea of getting rid of the House of Lords, still a real question in British politics today, was first suggested in the sixteenth century. In order to control discussion in Parliament, the Crown appointed a “Speaker”. His job in Tudor times was to make sure that Parliament discussed what the monarch wanted Parliament to discuss, and that it made the decision which he or she wanted. Until the end of the Tudor period Parliament was supposed to do three things: agree to the taxes needed; make the laws which the Crown suggested; and advise the Crown, but only when asked to do so. In order for Parliament to be able to do these things, MPs were given important rights: freedom of speech (that is freedom to speak their thoughts freely without fear), freedom from fear of arrest, and freedom to meet and speak to the monarch. 5. Life in Towns and Country In the sixteenth century, however, this picture began to change rapidly. The population increased, the unused land was cleared for sheep, and large areas of forest were cut down to provide wood for the growing shipbuilding industry. England was beginning to experience greater social and economic problems than ever before. The price of food and other goods rose steeply during the sixteenth and early seventeenth Centuries. But a greater problem was the sudden increase in population. In England and Wales the population almost doubled from 2.2 million in 1525 to four million in 1603. Twice the number of people needed twice the amount of food. It was 56 not produced. Living conditions got worse as the population rose. It was harder for a man to find work, or to produce enough food for his family. Many people became unemployed. As life had become harder, the monasteries had given employment to many and provided food for the very poor. Without work to do, many people stole food in order to eat. It is thought that about 7,000 thieves were hanged during Henry VIII’s reign. In 1563 Parliament made JPs responsible for deciding on fair wages and working hours. A worker was expected to start at five o’clock in the morning and work until seven or eight at night with two and a half hours allowed for meals. Good harvests through most of the century probably saved England from disaster, but there were bad ones between 1594 and 1597, making the problem of the poor worse again. In 1601 Parliament passed the first Poor Law. This made local people responsible for the poor in their own area. It gave power to JPs to raise money in the parish to provide food, housing and work for the poor and homeless of the same parish. The pattern of employment was changing. The production of finished cloth, the most important of England’s products, reached its greatest importance during the sixteenth century. The lives of rich and poor were very different. The rich ate good quality bread made from wheat, while the poor ate rough bread made from rye and barley. By using coal instead of wood fires, Tudor England learnt how to make greatly improved steel, necessary for modem weapons. Henry VIII replaced the longbow with the musket, an early kind of hand-held gun. Muskets were not as effective as longbows, but gunpowder and bullets were cheaper than arrows, and the men cheaper to train. Improved steel was used for making knives and forks, clocks, watches, nails and pins. Foreign visitors were surprised that women in England had greater freedom than anywhere else in Europe. Although they had to obey their husbands, they had self-confidence and were not kept hidden in their homes as women were in Spain and other countries. 57 6. Language and Culture At the beginning of the Tudor period English was still spoken in a number of different ways. There were still reminders of the Saxon, Angle, Jute and Viking invasions in the different forms of language spoken in different parts of the country. However, London English had become accepted as standard English. Printing made this standard English more widely accepted amongst the literate population. For the first time, people started to think of London pronunciation as “correct” pronunciation. From Tudor times onwards the way people spoke began to show the difference between them. Educated people began to speak “correct” English, and uneducated people continued to speak the local dialect. Literacy increased greatly during the mid-sixteenth century, even though the religious houses, which had always provided traditional education, had closed. In fact, by the seventeenth century about half the population could read and write. Literature, however, was England’s greatest art form. Playwrights like Christopher Marlowe, Ben Jonson, and William Shakespeare filled the theatres with their exciting new plays. QUESTIONS FOR CONTROL 1. Why Henry VII is considered the establisher of the new monarchy in England? 2. What changes took place in England during the reign of Henry VII? 3. What is the difference between Henry VII and his son Henry VIII? 4. What were the reasons for Henry VIII for changing the authority of the Church? 5. What did Act of Supremacy of 1534 stated? 6. What was the peculiarity of the Reformation in England? 7. Why was the English Reformation a step further in the development of the country? 8. What happened with monasteries and monks during the period of Reformation? 9. How old was Edward VI when he became king of England? 10.How did Edward VI manage the country? 11.Who became the king after Edward VI? 12.Why was Mary Tudor called “Bloody Mary”? 58 13. How long was Elizabeth a queen of England? 14.How did she want to settle the problem of disagreement between the Catholics and Protestants? What was the result of her efforts? 15.What was “a parish”? 16.Why was Mary the Queen of Scots the heir to the English throne? 17. Why did Elizabeth finally agree to Mary’s execution? 18. Did Elizabeth I encourage foreign trade? What country did she consider to be her main trade rival and main enemy? 19. What parts of the world did English colonists begin to settle? 20. Did the Tudor monarchs like governing the country through Parliament? 21. What did Henry VII and Henry VIII use Parliament for? 22.Why did the House of Commons play a more important role in Parliament than the House of Lords? 23. Why did the Crown appoint a Speaker in Parliament? 24.What is the Speaker responsible for in today’s Parliament? 25. How did the country look at the end of the 15th century? 26.Was there much difference between the way of people’s life in towns and villages? 27.What facts show that family life in the 16th century was hard? 28. When London English was accepted as standard English? 29. How did literacy increase during the 16th century? 59 LECTURE 2 ENGLAND DURIING STUART TIMES. REPUBLIC IN BRITAIN Plan: 1. England during the reign of James I and Charles I. 2. Republic in Britain. 3. Development of Britain after republic. 4. Revolution in thought. 1. England during the reign of James I and Charles I The Stuart monarchs, from James I onwards, were less successful than the Tudors. They quarreled with Parliament and this resulted in civil war. The only king of England ever to be tried and executed was a Stuart. The republic that followed was even more unsuccessful, and by popular demand the dead king’s son was called back to the throne. Important changes did not take place simply because the Stuarts were bad rulers. They resulted from a basic change in society. During the seventeenth century economic power moved even faster into the hands of the merchant and landowning farmer classes. Like Elizabeth, James I tried to rule without Parliament as much as possible. He was afraid it would interfere, and he preferred to rule with a small council. When Elizabeth died she left James with a huge debt, larger than the total yearly income of the Crown. James had to ask Parliament to raise a tax to pay the debt. Parliament agreed, but in return insisted on the right to discuss James’s home and foreign policy. James was successful in ruling without Parliament between 1611 and 1621, but it was only possible because Britain remained at peace. James could not afford the cost of an army. In 1618, at the beginning of the Thirty Years War in Europe, Parliament wished to go to war against the Catholics. James would not agree. Until 60 his death in 1625 James was always quarrelling with Parliament over money and over its desire to play a part in his foreign policy. Charles I found himself quarrelling even more bitterly with the Commons than his father had done, mainly over money. Charles dissolved Parliament. Charles surprised everyone by being able to rule successfully without Parliament. He was able to balance his budgets and make administration efficient. Charles saw no reason to explain his policy or method of government to anyone. By 1637 he was at the height of his power. His authority seemed to be more completely accepted than the authority of an English king had been for centuries. It also seemed that Parliament might never meet again. Charles shared his father’s dislike of Puritans. He had married a French Catholic, and the marriage was unpopular in Protestant Britain. In spring 1638 Charles faced a rebel Scottish army. Without the help of Parliament he was only able to put together an inexperienced army. It was impossible for Charles to find this money except through Parliament. This gave it the chance to end eleven years of absolute rule by Charles, and to force him to rule under parliamentary control. In return for its help, Parliament made Charles accept a new law which stated that Parliament had to meet at least once every three years. 2. Republic in Britain Several MPs had commanded the Parliamentarian army. Of these, the strongest was gentleman farmer named Oliver Cromwell. He had created a new “model” of army, the first regular force from which the British army of today developed. The Parliamentarian army under leadership of Oliver Cromwell captured the king and in 1649 Charles I was executed. The Council of State, consisted of 30 members, was created to govern the country. The House of Lords was abolished, the House of Commons expelled those who had opposed the king’s death. From 1649 till 1660 England was a republic. But the republic was not a success, as the government created by O.Cromwell was more severe than Charles’s had been. They had got rid of the monarchy, and they now got 61 rid of the House of Lords and the Anglican Church. Cromwell’s government was unpopular for other reasons for example, people were forbidden to celebrate Christmas and Easter, or to play games on a Sunday. The army was the most powerful force in the country and all the questions were decided with the help of the army. Disagreements between the army and the Parliament resulted in Parliament’s dissolution in 1653. Military dictatorship was established. O.Cromwell accepted the title of Lord Protector of a United Commonwealth of England, Scotland, Ireland and the colonies. When Cromwell died in 1658, the Protectorate, as his republican administration was called, collapsed. Cromwell had hoped that his son, rather than Parliament, would take over when he died. But Richard Cromwell was not a good leader. The republic was over. When Charles II returned to England as the publicly accepted king, the laws and Acts of Cromwell’s government were automatically cancelled. The restoration of the Monarchy brought back the gaiety of life (theatres were reopened), Anglican Church and Cavalier gentry (noblemen) with their old privileges and intolerance. As the Commonwealth was dissolved England, Ireland and Scotland had their own Parliament. 3. Development of Britain after republic Charles II was more French than English. He did his best to secure toleration to Catholics in England and also to escape the control of Parliament. The king was careful to make peace with his father’s enemies. Only those who had been responsible for his father’s execution were punished. Many Parliamentarians were given positions of authority or responsibility in the new monarchy. But Parliament itself remained generally weak. Charles shared his father’s belief in absolute right. Charles hoped to make peace between the different religious groups. He wanted to allow Puritans and Catholics who disliked the Anglican Church to meet freely. But Parliament was strongly Anglican. Charles himself was attracted to the Catholic Church. Parliament knew this and was always afraid that Charles would become a Catholic. For this reason Parliament passed the Test Act in 1673, which 62 prevented any Catholic from holding public office. Fear of Charles’s interest in the Catholic Church also resulted in the first political parties in Britain. One of these parties was a group of MPs who became known as “Whigs”. The Whigs were afraid of an absolute monarchy, and of the Catholic faith with which they connected it. They also wanted to have no regular or “standing” army. In spite of their fear of a Catholic king, the Whigs believed strongly in allowing religious freedom. The Whigs were opposed by another group, nicknamed “Tories”. The Tories upheld the authority of the Crown and the Church. The Whigs were not against the Crown, but they believed that its authority depended upon the consent of Parliament. These two parties, the Whigs and the Tories, became the basis of Britain’s two-party parliamentary system of government. Parliament passed an Act forbidding any Catholic to be a member of either the Commons or the Lords. It was not successful, however, in preventing James from inheriting the crown. James II became king after his brother’s death in 1685. James then tried to remove the laws which stopped Catholics from taking positions in government and Parliament. He also tried to bring back the Catholic Church, and allow it to exist beside the Anglican Church. James II had two daughters – Mary and Ann – who were firm Protestants. Mary was married to her first cousin, William of Orange, a Dutch prince, a Protestant. James’s second wife, a Catholic, gave birth to a son and English Parliament and Protestants were alarmed by the possibility of Catholic succession of Monarchs. Tories and Whigs invited William of Orange to invade England and after James escape from the country Parliament decided that James II had lost his rights to the Crown. Mary and William ruled the country together; moreover the Parliament decided that William would rule on in the event of Mary’s prior death. The political events of 1688 were called “the Glorious Revolution”, as it was a turning point in the conception and practice of government. The Parliament secured its superiority by adopting the Bill of Rights in 1689 and the monarchs - William III and Mary II accepted the conditions advanced by the Parliament: the legislative and 63 executive power of the Monarchs was limited (the monarchs could not impose taxes, the army could be kept only with the Parliament’s permission, the Acts should be passed through the Parliament). In 1701 Parliament finally passed the Act of Settlement, to make sure only a Protestant could inherit the crown. It stated that if Mary had no children the crown would pass to her sister Anne. Even today, if a son or daughter of the monarch becomes a Catholic, he or she cannot inherit the throne. In 1707 the union of Scotland and England was completed by Act of Parliament. From that moment both countries no longer had separate parliaments, and a new parliament of Great Britain, the new name of the state, met for the first time. Scotland, however, kept its own separate legal and judicial system, and its own separate Church. During the seventeenth century Britain’s main enemies were Spain, Holland and France. War with Holland resulted from competition in trade. At the end of the century Britain went to war against France. Britain wanted to limit French power, which had been growing that time. The Great Plague of 1665 and the Great Fire of London in 1666 were the calamities that brought a lot of sufferings to the English people. The economy of England by the end of the century was developing freely; new economic institutions like the Bank of Britain (1695) were founded. Trade and colonies were flourishing. England became a prosperous country. 4. Revolution in thought The political revolution during the Stuart age could not have happened if there had not been a revolution in thought. This influenced not only politics, but also religion and science. The influence of Puritanism increased greatly during the seventeenth century, particularly among the merchant class and lesser gentry. By the middle years of the seventeenth century Puritanism had led to the formation of a large number of small new religious groups, or “sects”. Most these Nonconformist sects lasted only a few 64 years, but two are important, the Baptists and the Quakers. In spite of opposition in the seventeenth century, both sects have survived and have had an important effect on the life of the nation. The Quakers became particularly famous for their reforming social work in the eighteenth century. These sects brought hope to many of the poor and powerless. The revolution in religious thinking was happening at the same time as a revolution in scientific thinking. In 1628 William Harvey discovered the circulation of blood and this led to great advances in medicine and in the study of the human body. These scientific studies were encouraged by the Stuarts. The Royal Society, founded by the Stuart monarchy, became an important centre where thinkers could meet, argue, enquire and share information. In 1666 the Cambridge Professor of Mathematics, Sir Isaac Newton, began to study gravity. The greatest British architect of the time, Christopher Wren, was also Professor of Astronomy at Oxford. In 1666, following a year of terrible plague, a fire destroyed most of the city of London. Eighty-seven churches, including the great medieval cathedral of St Paul, were destroyed. Wren was ordered to rebuild them in the modern style, which he did with skill. As a result of the rapid spread of literacy and the improvement in printing techniques, the first newspapers appeared in the seventeenth century. They were a new way of spreading all kinds of ideas, scientific, religious and literary. Many of them included advertisements. The situation for the poor improved in the second half of the seventeenth century. Prices fell compared with wages, and fewer people asked for help from the parish. But it was the middle groups who continued to do well. Many who started life as yeoman farmers or traders became minor gentry or merchants. Most towns did not have shops before the seventeenth century. They had market days when farmers and manufacturers sold their produce in the town square or marketplace. By 1690, however, most towns also had proper shops. There was a new class of rich “aristocrats” in London, most of whom belonged to the nobility, but not all. Money could buy a high position in British society more easily 65 than in Europe. After 1650 the rich began to meet in the new coffeehouses, which quickly became the meeting places for conversation and politics. After the rapid increase in population in the Tudor century, the number of births began to fall in the Stuart age. In 1600 Britain and Ireland had a total population of 6 million. Although it increased to 7.7 million by 1650, the rate then started to fall. No one is quite sure why the population either rose so rapidly in the Tudor age, or steadied during the seventeenth century. QUESTIONS FOR CONTROL 1. Why did James I tried to rule the country without Parliament? 2. Why did he have to ask Parliament for money? 3. How did Charles I’s relations with Parliament develop? 4. Why did he dissolve Parliament in 1628? 5. How did Charles I rule the country without Parliament between 1629 and 1640? 6. Why did some people in England criticize the Church of England? Why were they called Puritans? 7. Did Charles I dislike Puritans? 8. What can you tell about the Civil War? 9. Who was Oliver Cromwell? 10.What was Charles I accused of and when was he executed? 11.How long was Britain a republic? Was it successful? 12. How did the position of Parliament change with the restoration of monarchy? 13. When did the first political parties appear in Britain and what were the basic principles of each of the two parties? 14. How was William of Orange connected with the English throne? 15. Was the Glorious Revolution really a revolution? 16. Why did Scotland agree to the union with England? 17. What was the new official name of the united state? 18. What new ideas appeared in science in the 17-th century? 19. How did the life of people improve in the 17-th century? 66 LECTURE 3 DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLAND IN THE XVIII-XIXTH CENTURIES Plan: 1. Development of England during the first half of the 18th century. 2. Industrial revolution. 3. England at the end of 18th century. 4. Beginning of the 19th century. 5. England under the reign of Queen Victoria. End of the 19th century. 1. Development of England during the first half of the 18th century The end of the 17th c and the start of the 18th c were the periods of wars in Europe. Britain was involved into the Nine Years War (1688-1697) and the War for Spanish Succession (1702-1713). France had become a permanent enemy, and the grant strategy of England was to stop the French expansionist policies: to struggle against the French competition in trade, and also to interfere in the affairs of the Spanish Empire. The Whigs in the British Parliament supported the interventionist foreign policy of William III and his favorite general Duke of Marlborough. After the death of Mary II and William III they were succeeded by Anne. Marlborough was the commander of the army and was successfully fighting against the French attempts to place a French prince on the Spanish throne. England wanted to place an Austrian prince on the throne of Spain and was the goal in the War for Spanish Succession. The Whigs were preparing the Union with Scotland and in 1707 the Scottish Parliament voted itself out of existence and together with the British Parliament adopted the Act of the Union with Scotland. The new British flag united the flags of England and Scotland combining the crosses of St.George and St. Andrew. Scotland retained its legal system and the established Church and also gained free trade with England. England, Scotland and Wales were united and became Great Britain. 67 The Tories opposed the military actions of Whigs. They came to power in 1712 and began negotiating peace with France. The treaty was signed in 1713 according to which the Crowns of France and Spain were never to be united, Britain gained new territories and the right to sell slaves to the Spanish colonies. Great Britain had become a great European power. According to the Act of Settlement Anne was succeeded by Protestant of Hanoverian dynasty. George I was German and could speak no English. The consequences were that the Whigs surrounding the king had many royal prerogatives and their leader became the Chairman of the King’s Council. That was the beginning of the Cabinet system of Government in Great Britain, with a Prime Minister presiding over the Cabinet. The Whigs domination lasted for half a century. Robert Walpole was the first Prime Minister of England (in 1721). The main objectives of his policy were peace and prosperity. He had been in office for twenty years and stabilized the financial situation with the help of taxes imposed on goods sold within the country. When George II became the king he continued his father’s policy and relied upon Walpole as Prime Minister. The most important opponent of Sir R.Walpole was William Pitt, the leader of Tories, who thought that trade is the wealth of the world, trade makes the difference between rich and poor, between one nation and another. In 1760 George II was succeeded by his grandson George III. He was the first Hanoverian to be born in Britain. He was determined to take more active part in the government of the country. His Cabinet included the Tories who were describes as King’s friends. William Pitt had resigned as his new military plans did not find an understanding of the young king, who wanted to make peace with France and other European countries. 2. Industrial revolution The technological Revolution was a breakthrough in the economic and social development of Great Britain. Its beginning is referred to the middle of the 18th c.; 68 and the first achievements were in the production of agricultural products due to the new farming techniques. Mechanical inventions facilitated the growth of iron and coal production. By 1800 England was producing four times more coal as it had done in 1700 and eight times as much iron. In 1769 a steam engine was made. In 1764 a spinning machine was invented which revolutionized the cloth making industry and transformed it into a factory industry. Cotton textiles played the leading part in Britain’s economic expansion. The industrial revolution involved a revolution in transport. Man-made canals linked the main ports of England, roads were improved and a service of post coaches was started in 1784. 3. England at the end of 18th century The end of the 18th c. was the period of social disintegration – the wealth of few was growing while the misery and the poverty of the majority of people were increasing rapidly. The country was splitting into two nations – the rich and the poor. In 1789 there was Revolution in France and British ruling classes were frightened that similar events might happen in Britain. The Government took measures against the working class movement and organizations that were appearing: mass meetings were forbidden, associations of workers were declared illegal. The king George III was an old sick man, who was not always in his right mind, so the position of the prime Minister was extremely important. Pitt was determined to maintain peace, but revolutionary France declared war in 1793. The situation became more dangerous when French general – Napoleon – appeared on the political scene. The British were rescued by the Navy. The commander of the British fleet, Admiral Nelson won several victories over the French navy. Britain emerged from the “Napoleonic Wars” a great empire: Canada, Australia, most of India, South Africa, Ceylon, Guinea and a number of small provinces. At the same time England was suffering from internal problems: political and economic reforms had been long overdue, the position of workers and the poor had deteriorated. The first political measure of the Government was a Corn Law prohibiting the import of cheap foreign grain. 69 The social and political changes in the world involved the revolution in the arts. A brilliant galaxy of writers and poets looked for inspiration to nature, to emotions and to the spirit of freedom (Wordsworth, Coleridge, Byron, Shelly and Austen). 4. Beginning of the 19th century The old king George III (1760-1820), blind, insane, died in 1820 and was succeeded by little respected George IV (1820-1830) who had been Prince Regent for the last nine years of his father’s life (1811-1820). At the first half of the 19th c. more liberal ministers were included in the Government, more progressive policies and laws were adopted. The efficient police force was created. The Catholic Emancipation Act was a forced decision that split the Tory party and brought the Whigs to power in 1830. The Whigs were determined to reform the Parliament and the parliamentary franchise, which had not changed since the reign of Elizabeth I. The electoral franchise and distribution of seats in Parliament were in a mess. Different parts of the country were represented in an uneven and unjust way. The voting was not secret; the whole system was corrupt and unrepresentative. The same situation was in the country. There were outbreaks of machine breaking and riots: people exploited at the factories by factory owner and left unemployed by machines replacing them, were outraged; they smashed machines blaming Ned Ludd for it and bearing his name – Luddites, wearing masks and damaging the factories. In 1830 the Manchester and Liverpool Railway was opened. The first effective Factory Act was passed, limiting the hours worked by children in cotton factories to nine, prohibiting their employment under nine years of age and appointing inspectors to see that the decisions were enforced. According to the Poor Law all poor people were to go to the workhouses where the conditions were terrible (it was described in the novel by Ch.Dickens “Oliver Twist”). 70 The working classes demanded more radical reforms. In 1838 the first petition was drawn up the leaders of the first association of workers, which was called the People’s Charter. It included six main demands for changes: the vote for all males, parliamentary constituencies of equal size, voting by secret ballot, a salary for MPs, no property qualifications for MPs, annual Parliaments. All these reforms seemed revolutionary at that time. The Chartist movement was supported by the working people, but it had its ups and downs. The first and the second Charters were rejected by the Parliament in 1839 and 1842. In 1848 the charter movement coincided with the revolution in Europe and with the nationalist demands of the Irish, but the third petition was rejected too. After that Chartism began to decline and grew into the cooperative and trade unionist movement. 5. England under the reign of Queen Victoria. End of the 19th century The Parliament struggle of the Tories and Whigs, the working classes struggle for social rights and a better life, were all developing against the background of changes in the Monarchy. After the death of William IV in 1837 the 18 years old Victoria became Queen. Her first Prime Minister, Lord Melbourne, taught the young Queen the duties of the constitutional monarch. It was a difficult time: the Whigs lost their popularity and the majority in the House of Commons; the Hungry Thirties passed into the Hungry Forties, and the alternative to the Whigs polices was the new Conservative Party, created by R.Peel. Peel’s financial reforms brought revival to the country (1844) and legislation to protect factory and mine workers improved their conditions. Reforms brought cheaper food and exports from “the workshops of the world”. And the Whigs inherited the benefits of Peel’s reforms. In 1840 Victoria married her cousin Albert. The marriage was happy, and the Royal family became a model for moral standards in high society as well as for middle classes. Albert was deeply interested in the British affairs, both foreign and home. He was the initiator of a great display of Victorian glory and progress in the country – the Great Exhibition of 1851. It was quite a new idea. The Exhibition 71 building was an enormous glass-and-iron structure – the crystal Palace in Hyde Park, it had on display machinery and products from Britain, the Empire and other countries. “The Crystal Palace” was the symbol of Technological progress. All the Victorian writers, poets, painters glorified English culture (Tennyson, Charles Dickens, Nikolas Nickleby, Thackeray, Bronte sisters, Thomas Hardy, Henry James, Oscar Wilde, Bernard Shaw). Victorian science was influenced by the development of three men: K.Marx – the founder of Communism, Sigmund Freud – the founder of psycho-analysis and Ch.Darvin – the founder of the modern theory of biological evolution. In 1854 a Crimean War broke out. Britain and France declared war on Russia in support of Turkey. This war revealed the courage of ordinary solders and the incompetence of the command. Newspapers reported the shocking conditions in the army hospitals, the terrible organization of supplies. The war solved nothing but it brought a glory to the work of Florence Nightingale, who organized hospitals and treatment of the wounded. Queen Victoria suffered a great personal tragedy in 1861 – Albert died of typhoid – and the Queen went into deep mourning, withdrew from public duties and lived in isolation for a decade. Her last thirty-five years of reign were a period of struggle between the new Liberal Party and the Conservatives. On the great issues Queen Victoria strongly sympathized with Conservatives and disapproved of Liberals. The Empire that Great Britain had gained by the middle of the 19 th c, was the result of the greatest power that Britain possessed through its command of trade, finance and manufacturing. The colonies were united by English law and by trade, the forms of governing administration varied. The whole population was growing due to the emigration from the British Isles: throughout the 18th c., 19th c. poor and disadvantaged people sought a new and better life in the colonies. QUESTIONS FOR CONTROL 1. What king was George I? Why did Parliament support him? 72 2. Who was Robert Walpole? 3. When did the war with France break out and what were the results of this war for Britain? 4. What attempts were made to help the poor people? What is a workhouse? 5. How did the industry begin to develop at the end of the 18th century? 6. What helped England to avoid revolution? 7. Was the revolution in France a real danger for England? 8. What measures did the British government take because of afraid of revolution? 9. When did Britain go to war with Napoleon? Why did it decide to fight at sea? 10. Who was Horatio Nelson? 11. Why did Britain change from the nation of country people to a nation of townspeople between 1815 and 1835? 12. What were both the Tories and the Whigs afraid of? 13. When was the People’s Charter worked out? What rights did the Charter demand? 14. What exhibition was opened in 1851? What was the aim of the exhibition? 15.What was the pride of Britain and a great example of its industrial power? 17. When was the voting carried out in secret for the first time? 18. How did the growth of newspaper industry tell the development of democracy? 19. When did the first congress of trade unions meet? 20. What was the purpose of the numerous “colonial wars” Britain was engaged in? 21. What was the political situation in Europe at the end of the 19th century? 73 LECTURE 4 DEVELOPMENT OF GREAT BRITAIN IN THE XXTH CENTURY Plan: 1. The United Kingdom in the first half of the 20 century 2. Affairs in Parliament. 3. World War I. 4. Political changes in the country. 5. World War II. 6. The postwar Britain 7. Britain in the Second Half of the 20th century 8. Britain in the end of the century 9. Present-Day Britain 1. The United Kingdom in the 1st half of the 20 th century By the beginning of the 20th century, Britain was no longer the world’s richest country. The first twenty years of the century were a period of extremism. The Suffragettes, women demanding the right to vote, were prepared both to damage property and to die for their beliefs; the problem of Ulster in the north of Ireland led to a situation in which some sections of the army were ready to disobey the government; and the government’s introduction of new taxes was opposed by the House of Lords so that even Parliament seemed to have an uncertain future in its traditional form. But by the end of the First World War, two of these issues had been resolved to most people’s satisfaction (only the Irish problem remained). In the first half of the 1900s, Britain fought in two world wars that considerably changed its international influence and status. Many countries which were British colonies before 1945 became independent countries as the British Empire developed into the Commonwealth of Unions. In 1906, Britain was the 74 world's richest and most powerful nation, but the Soviet Union and the United States, with their vast resources of people and materials, eventually overtook Britain. 2. Affairs in Parliament In 1906, the Liberals won a general election by a large majority and again returned to government in January 1910. Then it introduced a bill to end the power of the Lords to reject financial bills. The bill also provided that any other bill, if passed by the Commons three times in two years, should become law without the approval of the Lords. The Liberals also proposed to reduce the length of a Parliament from seven to five years. The Lords passed the bill. It became law as the Parliament Act of 1911. The Liberals passed more social reforms. In 1911, the Shops Act enforced early closing once a week. By another act, members of Parliament received payment for their services. A National Insurance Act provided sickness insurance for all lowpaid workers and unemployment insurance for people in some jobs. 3. World War I In the late 1800s, Britain, with its vast empire, relied on the Navy for defences and followed a foreign policy of splendid isolation. But with the early 1900s came a need for alliances. In 1902, Britain allied with Japan to meet a possible Russian attack on India. In 1904, Britain and France, both fearing German aggression, signed a treaty called the Entente Cordiale. In 1907, this became the Triple Entente, when France's ally, Russia, joined it. The Entente was opposed by the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria, and Italy. War was becoming imminent. The assassination of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir to the Austrian throne, at Sarajevo on June 28, 1914 was the pretext which led to open conflict. On August 1, 1914 Germany declared war on Russia, on August 3 it declared war on France. World War I began in 1914. The Allies - Britain, France, the United States, and other countries - fought the Central Powers - Germany, Austria-Hungary, the 75 Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria. The war was caused chiefly by political and economic rivalry among the various nations. Britain entered the war on August 4, 1914, after German troops invaded neutral Belgium on their way to attack France. In the course of the war a coalition government was formed with the participation of the Liberals, the Tories and a few Labour representatives. Lloyd George emerged as the dominant figure in the government doing his best to divert growing labour unrest by propagating 'national unity'. The fighting lasted until 1918, when the Allies finally defeated Germany. On August 8, 1918 the allied forces staged a major breakthrough surrounding and destroying 16 German divisions. Germany was defeated and the Armistice was signed on November 11, 1918. Lloyd George served as prime minister during the second half of the war. He helped to write the Treaty of Versailles, which officially ended the war with Germany. The treaty set up the League of Nations, and gave Britain control over German colonies in Africa. The Treaty of Sevres, signed with the Turkish Ottoman Empire, gave Britain control over some Turkish possessions in the Middle East. The war had a shattering effect on Britain. About 750,000 members of the British armed forces died. German submarines sank about 7 million metric tons of British shipping. The war also created severe economic problems for Britain and shook its position as a world power. 4. Political changes in the country In January 1924, a new party, the Labour Party, came to power under James Ramsay MacDonald. The party represented socialist societies and workers’ groups. While the Labour Party grew stronger, the Liberal Party declined. Many voters could see little difference between Conservatives and Liberals. They saw the Labour Party, with its socialist aims, as an alternative to the Conservative Party. The Labour Party held office only until November. It lacked a majority in the House of Commons, and needed the Liberal Party's support. The Liberals soon withdrew their support. 76 In the 1929 elections, the Labour Party became the largest party for the first time. MacDonald returned as prime minister. A few months later, the worldwide Great Depression began. In 1931, MacDonald formed a government of Labour, Conservative, and Liberal leaders to deal with the emergency. The government increased taxes, abandoned free trade, and cut its own spending. But the United Kingdom could not escape the effects of the Great Depression. In the depth of the depression, Adolf Hitler and his Nazi Party won control of Germany. Germany began to rearm, but few leaders in the United Kingdom, or elsewhere, saw the danger. Meantime, the United Kingdom faced an unusual problem at home. King George V died in 1936, and his oldest son became King Edward VIII. Edward wanted to marry an American divorcee, Mrs. Wallis Warfield Simpson. The government, the Church of England, and many British people objected. Edward then gave up the throne to marry "the woman I love." His brother became king as George VI. Neville Chamberlain, a Conservative, became prime minister in 1937. Chamberlain thought he could deal with Hitler. In 1938, Hitler seized Austria and then demanded part of Czechoslovakia. Chamberlain and Premier Edouard Daladier of France flew to Munich, Germany, to confer with Hitler. They gave in to Hitler's demands after the German dictator said he would seek no more territory. Chamberlain returned to Britain and said: "I believe it is peace in our time." The people sighed in relief. But Chamberlain met sharp attacks in the House of Commons. Winston Churchill, a Conservative, called the Munich Agreement "a disaster of the first magnitude." 5. World War II In March 1939, Germany seized the rest of Czechoslovakia. On September 1, Germany invaded Poland and World War II began. Two days later, the United Kingdom and France declared war on Germany. In April 1940, German troops invaded Denmark and Norway. Chamberlain resigned on May 10, and Churchill 77 became prime minister. On that same day, Germany attacked Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands. Churchill told the British people he had nothing to offer but "blood, toil, tears, and sweat" to win "victory at all costs." Germany conquered France in June, and the UK stood alone against the Nazi war machine. The United Kingdom prepared for invasion, and Churchill urged his people to make this "their finest hour." He inspired them to heights of courage, unity, and sacrifice. Hundreds of German planes bombed the UK nightly. German submarines tried to cut the UK's lifeline by torpedoing ships bringing supplies to the island country. Severe rationing limited each person's share of food, clothing, coal, and oil. The British refused to be beaten, and Hitler gave up his invasion plans. In June 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union. In December, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, in Hawaii, and the United States entered the war. The UK, the United States, the Soviet Union, and the other Allies finally defeated Germany and Japan in 1945. Near the end of the war, the UK helped establish the United Nations. About 360,000 British servicemen, servicewomen, and civilians died in the war. Great sections of London and other cities had been destroyed by German bombs. The war had shattered the UK economy, and the country had piled up huge debts. The United States and the Soviet Union came out of the war as the world's most powerful nations. 6. The postwar Britain The Labour Party won a landslide victory in 1945. The party had campaigned on a socialist programme. Clement Attlee became prime minister, and the Labour Party stayed in power until 1951. During those six years, the UK became a welfare state. The nation's social security system was expanded to provide welfare for the people "from the cradle to the grave." The Labour government also began to nationalize industry by putting private businesses under public control. The nationalized industries included the Bank of England, the coal mines, the iron and steel industry, the railways, and the road haulage industry. 78 Although the Labour government struggled to restore the economy, conditions improved little. Rationing and other wartime controls continued. The government borrowed heavily from the United States. World War II sealed the fate of the British Empire, though the UK had begun loosening control over its empire earlier. In 1931, the UK granted independence within the empire to Australia, Canada, the Irish Free State, New Zealand, Newfoundland, and South Africa. They became the first members of the Commonwealth of Nations, an association of countries and dependencies that succeeded the empire. After World War II, the peoples of Africa and Asia increased their demands for independence. The UK could no longer keep control of its colonies. Nevertheless Britain tried to keep international ties with its former colonies through a new organisation called the British Commonwealth of Nations. All the former colonies were invited to join it as free and equal members. Now there are 53 member states with the population of more than 1, 7 billiard people. While the UK was breaking up its empire during the postwar years, other nations of Western Europe joined together in various organizations to unite economically and politically. The UK was reluctant to join them. Throughout history, the UK had preferred to stay out of European affairs - except to keep the balance of power in Europe. By joining the new organizations, the UK feared it might lose some of its independence, and would also be turning its back on the Commonwealth. Most important, it did not join the European Economic Community (EEC). This association, also called the European Common Market, was set up by France and five other nations. After the EEC showed signs of succeeding, the UK set up the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) with six other nations. But it was only a mild success, and the UK later regretted its refusal to join the EEC. George VI's health declined during 1951, and Princess Elizabeth was soon frequently standing in for him at public events. In October of that year, she toured Canada, and visited the President of the United States, Harry S. Truman, in Washington, D.C.; on the trip, the Princess carried with her a draft accession 79 declaration for use if the King died while she was out of the United Kingdom. In early 1952, Elizabeth and Philip set out for a tour of Australia and New Zealand via Kenya. At Sagana Lodge, about 100 miles north of Nairobi, word arrived of the death of Elizabeth's father on 6 February. Philip broke the news to the new queen. Martin Charteris, then her Assistant Private Secretary, asked her what she intended to be called as monarch, to which she replied: "Elizabeth, of course." Elizabeth was proclaimed queen throughout her realms, and the royal party hastily returned to the United Kingdom. She and the Duke of Edinburgh moved into Buckingham Palace. In the years after World War II, British foreign policy was closely allied with that of the United States. The UK joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and fought in the Korean War (1950-1953). 7. Britain in the Second Half of the 20th century A Conservative government returned to power in 1951 under Winston Churchill. The Conservatives accepted most of the changes the Labour Party had made. By 1955, rationing and most other wartime controls had ended. Industry was thriving, jobs were plentiful, and wages were good. Churchill retired in 1955, and Sir Anthony Eden succeeded him as prime minister. Eden resigned in 1957, and Harold Macmillan succeeded him. The economy continued to expand until the early 1960s. Hoping to improve the economy, the government applied for membership of the European Economic Community. By joining the EEC, Macmillan hoped the UK would be able to expand its export trade. But in January 1963, the UK's application was rejected, largely because of opposition from French President Charles de Gaulle. The rejection was a defeat for Macmillan. The 1964 election brought the Labour Party back to power under Harold Wilson. In 1965 Parliament adopted a five-year national plan of economic recovery. This plan was based on encouraging monopoly development. Wilson’s government also lowered the voting age from 21 to 18. But at the same time the Labour 80 government maintained a typical wage-freeze policy which led to wide-scale industrial unrest. The government faced mounting economic problems. The UK was importing far more goods than it was exporting, and its industrial growth rate was too slow. The country's financial reserves shrank, and it had to borrow more and more money from other countries and international agencies. In 1966, the government began an austerity programme by increasing taxes and putting a ceiling on wages and prices. In October 1967, the UK was again rejected for membership of the EEC. In November, the government devalued the pound in response to the serious economic situation. 8. Britain in the end of the century On this background, the Conservatives won the elections of 1970, and Edward formed the new Tory government. In 1971, agreement was reached on terms for the UK's entry into the EEC. The UK joined the EEC in 1973. However, continuing inflation, fuel shortages, strikes, and other matters caused serious problems for the Conservative government. In home policy, Edward decided to show his firm hand by a dramatic confrontation with miners. As a result, the Tories lost the 1974 general election. Elections in 1974 brought the Labour Party back to power, and Harold Wilson again became prime minister. In 1976. James Callaghan succeeded him as prime minister and as leader of the Labour Party. The new Labour government of Wilson – Callaghan took some positive measures: the miners received a wage increase; the full working week was restored. The Labour government managed to disguise the old policies by proposing a “voluntary” wage-freeze policy called the Social Contract. This led to a fall of Labour support. Long-standing conflicts between Catholics and Protestants in Northern Ireland became a serious problem during the late 1960's and the 1970's. In 1969, the government began sending troops to Northern Ireland to try to stop riots from occurring. But the violence continued. The UK Parliament at Westminster established direct rule over the country at various times. 81 Some people in Scotland and Wales demanded complete independence from the UK for their countries. In March 1979, the UK government allowed the people of Scotland and Wales to vote on the question of whether they should have their own legislatures. The voters in both countries failed to approve the establishment of the legislatures. The process under which Scotland and Wales would have received more control over their affairs is called devolution. Elections held in May 1979 returned the Conservatives to power. Margaret Thatcher replaced Callaghan as prime minister. She became the first woman ever to hold the office. She headed the cabinet for more than 10 years. The government’s economic policy was focused on encouraging private enterprise and denationalization. As prime minister, Thatcher worked to reduce government involvement in the economy. The introduction of the poll tax in 1989 met overwhelming opposition in the country. In April 1982, Argentine troops invaded and occupied the disputed Falkland Islands. British and Argentine forces fought air, sea, and land battles for control of the Falkland Islands. The Argentine forces surrendered in June 1982. Meanwhile, the Liberal Party briefly allied with a Labour administration in 1978. In 1982, the Liberals formed an electoral alliance with a new party carved out of the Labour Party's right wing. This was the Social Democratic Party. In 1987, the Liberals and Social Democrats agreed to terms for merging the two parties. In 1990, the new party was named the Liberal Democrats. In November 1990, Thatcher resigned as Conservative Party leader and prime minister. John Major succeeded her in both positions. In August 1990, Iraq invaded Kuwait. In early 1991, UK forces took part in the allied bombing of Iraqi military targets and in the ground offensive to liberate Kuwait. 9. Present-Day Britain The economic policy of Great Britain in the 1990s was characterized by the strategy of economic regulation, which promoted the victory of the Conservatives in the general election in 1992. The cabinet headed by John Major continued the 82 economic and social policies traditional for this party. This led to a fall of the Conservatives. In 1997, Britain’s opposition Labour party routed the ruling Conservative party in the national election, and its leader Tony Blair replaced Major as head of the government. He became Britain’s youngest Prime Minister since 1812, ending 18 years of Tory rule since 1979. Blair repeated his success in the general election of 2002. As Prime Minister Tony Blair presided over an optimistic first term in which Devolution brought self-governing powers to both Scotland and Wales, reversing control from London. The late 1990s and into the millennium saw an increased celebration of British culture in its myriad of aspects from the Queen's Golden Jubilee celebrations of 2002 to huge programmes of urban renewal of the long neglected industrial cities of the north, Manchester, Liverpool, Newcastle and Glasgow, making them the great cities of culture they are today. On 27 June 2007, the new Prime Minister Gordon Brown replaced Blair. Brown is the first prime minister from a Scottish constituency since 1964. He is also one of only five prime ministers who attended a university other than Oxford or Cambridge. Brown has proposed moving some traditional prime ministerial powers to the realm of Parliament, such as the power to declare war and approve appointments to senior positions. He has also proposed moving some powers from Parliament to citizens, including the right to form "citizens' juries", easily petition Parliament for new laws, and rally outside Westminster. In the local elections on 1 May 200, Labour suffered their worst results in 40 years. Gordon Brown was quoted in the press as having said that the results were "a painful defeat for Labour". As for the domestic policies, the Labour government admitted that the recession had been deeper than predicted, but claimed that the government's action to pump money into the economy had made a "real difference" to families and businesses. Later the year of 2009, a number of measures to help economic recovery 83 were announced, including a public sector pay freeze, a levy on bank bonuses and a package of measures to help the unemployed. On the last general elections to the House of Commons held in May 2010 none of the parties achieved the 326 seats needed for an overall majority. The Conservative Party, led by David Cameron, won the largest number of votes and seats but still fell twenty seats short. This resulted in a hung parliament where no party was able to command a majority in the House of Commons. This was only the second general election since World War II to return a hung parliament, the first being the February 1974 election. Coalition talks began immediately between the Conservatives and the Liberal Democrats and lasted for five days. To facilitate this Gordon Brown announced that he would resign as Labour Party leader. Realizing that a deal with the Conservatives was in reach, the next day on Tuesday 11 May, Brown announced his resignation as Prime Minister, marking the end of 13 years of Labour government. This was accepted by Queen Elizabeth II, who then invited David Cameron to form a government in her name and become Prime Minister. A coalition government of Conservatives and Liberal Democrats was formed. QUESTIONS FOR CONTROL 1. When did the Liberals propose to reduce the length of a Parliament from seven to five years? 2. When did the UK enter the World War I? 3. What can you tell about Great Depression? 4. Describe the situation when the king George V died? 5. What were the effects of World War I on the UK? 6. What do you know about participation of the UK in the World War II? 7. Tell about relations of the UK and its colonies in the 20th century. 8. When did Elizabeth II become the queen of the country and why? 9. Tell about entering of the UK to EEC. 84 10. What were the political changes in the country in the second half of the 20 th century? 11. What can you tell about British Prime Ministers: M.Thatcher, T.Blayer, G.Brown, D.Cameron? 12. Why was the coalition government formed in 2010? 13. What was the economic position of the UK at the end of the 20th century? MODULE 3 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA LECTURE 1 HISTORY OF THE USA (FROM FOUNDATION TILL XXTH CENTURY) Plan: 1. Native Americans and first explorers of America. 2. First colonies in America. 3. War for Independence. 4. Changes in the country after Declaration of Independence. 5. America in the 19th century. 6. Struggle against slavery. 7. America in the second half of the 19th century. 1. Native Americans and first explorers of America Native Americans were the first Americans. They were there long before any other people. The first Americans probably crossed over from Asia to America. There is proof that human beings lived in North America over 12,000 years ago. Small groups of Asian hunters came to America over a period of many hundreds of years. These earliest Americans did not just stay in one place. They were looking for places where hunting was good. They divided into small groups, sometimes they 85 moved to avoid war with another group. There were hundreds of tribes in America by 1492. That was the year Columbus arrived in America from Europe and called the people he found there Indians. These were the native Americans. But who were the first explorers to discover America? Most people talked about the possibility of sailing around the southern tip of Africa and the northward across the Indian Ocean to India. From there ships could sail to China. Captain Columbus was much interested in finding a new route to Indies. King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain were very interested in Columbus's idea. His dream was going to come true. On October 12, 1492, the Spanish ship reached the land. Columbus went on shore and claimed the land he has found for king Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain. He named the small island San Salvador. Columbus made a mistake. He was sure that he had reached the East Indies, islands very close to Asia. He even called people he found on the island “Indians”. The islands became known as the West Indies. Columbus never knew that he had discovered the America. The new continent was not even named after Columbus. Instead it was called America after Amerigo Vespucci, a merchant from Florence, Italy, who realized that the cost he had scouted on a voyage in 1501 was “a very great continent”. Many explorers and settlers came after Columbus. They claimed land for the countries that sent them. Spain explored and claimed almost everything in the southern part of America. Spain has almost complete control of Latin America by 1540. By 1580 thousand of Spanish people were living in America. Gold and silver from America were housing into the Spanish treasury. However, in 1588 the Spanish sent a group of armed ships to laid England. The English were able to crush the Spanish fleet. With this defeat Spain began to decline as a world power. Spanish growth in America slowed. The French, the Dutch and the English would soon be starting permanent settlement in America. An Englishman Sir Francis Drake was an explorer, a sea captain and a great 86 adventurer. In December of 1577 England sent Drake on a voyage of exploration to America. He was the first person in England to sail around the world. A few years later another Englishman, Sir Walter Raleigh started colony in North America. He called it Virginia. 2. First colonies in America Many people wanted to come to the colony but they were too poor to pay the fare on the ship. So they came as servants. Someone in the colony would agree to pay the fare of the poor person who in turn would agree to work without pay for a certain time — (for about 7 years). The master would have to give the servant food, clothing and a place to live. When the time of service was up, the person was free. In 1619 the colonists were given the right to make their own laws. They voted for representatives called burgesses. They met at the House of Burgesses. In 1620 another group of people came to America. These were the Pilgrims. A pilgrim is a person, who travels for religious reasons. The story of the Pilgrims begins in England. There they were called Separatists because they had broken away from the English church. Because of this some of them were put in prison. Others lost their jobs or had to leave their homes. Things got so bad in England that the Separatists decided to move to the Netherlands first and then to Virginia. They called the area where they settled Plymouth Plantation. Ten years after the Pilgrims started the Plymouth Colony, English Puritans started coming to America. Like the Pilgrims, the Puritans wanted to worship in their own way. But they did not want to leave the Church of England. Instead they wanted to "purify" it or change it. The Puritans in England were treated just as badly as the Pilgrims. They also came because they felt they could make a better living for themselves in America. The Colony the Puritans started was the Massachusetts Bay. Fishing and shipping soon became important ways to make a living. The early colonists found that the rocky soil and hilly land of New England were not good for large farms. But most families could grow enough food for themselves and their families. The settlers also found rapidly moving rivers. Fishing, shipping and trading 87 soon became more important ways to make a living than farming. Towns quickly appeared along the rivers. The common land was owned by all the people in the town. Here they could put their animals to graze. At the edge of the common land stood the most important building in the town — the meeting house and the church. The meeting house was used for the town meeting. But only those men who owned property could discuss and vote on town business. But nevertheless the town meeting is one of the earliest forms of democracy in America. Church was very important to the people of New England. No work could be done on Sunday. Worship services often lasted three hours or more. There were morning or evening services. The leader of the church was one of the most important people in the town. By 1760 Virginia was the largest colony in America among 13 colonies. The other four Southern colonies were Maryland, North and South Carolina and Georgia. Many Catholics settled in Maryland. It soon became a prosperous colony. The settlers grew many crops. The most important was tobacco. Many of these crops were sent back to England to be sold. By 1760 the English were the largest group of people to settle in the American colonies. The second largest group was the Africans. The English came freely. After 1650 nearly all the Africans came as slaves. There were slaves in every one of the 13 colonies by 1760. Because plantations were so large and needed so many workers, there were far more slaves in the southern colonies than in the middle colonies or New England. The worst thing about slavery was the lack of freedom. Food, clothing and shelter all came from the master. Slaves had no legal rights. They could not be taught to read and write in most colonies. They could not own property. They could not even marry legally. Other slaves worked as servants in the big house. The slaves worked six days a week. Many owners used force and punishment. Beatings, whippings, less food and threats of being sold away from family members were used to make slaves obey. Most slaves were very religious. William Penn received land in America as payment for a debt owed by the 88 king to Penn's father. He called the new land Pennsylvania, which means “Penn's woods”. He wanted to start a colony on this land where people of any religion would be free to worship as they pleased. Philadelphia, the largest city in Pennsylvania, was becoming the leading city in the colonies. It was the chief port for newcomers to America. It was a center of trade for the many small farms. Philadelphia had public libraries, a fire department and the first hospital in America. The city had some well-lighted, paved streets, as well as police protection. There were three newspapers and a college. 3. War for Independence In 1763 Britain and the colonies ended a seven-year war with the French and Indians. As a result of this war Britain would now rule Canada and other lands that had belonged to France. This brought peace to the American colonies. The Americans were happy to be a part of Britain in 1763. Yet a dozen years later the same people would be fighting for independence or freedom from Great Britain's rule. This war was called the War for Independence, or the American Revolution. The British Parliament passed laws to tax the colonies. Britain thought the colonists should pay their share of the cost of the French and Indian War. British soldiers in America became special targets of the colonists' anger. They were constant reminders of British control. The first meeting of the group of representatives from the colonists was called the Continental congress. It was held in Philadelphia on September, 5 1774. Efforts were made to keep peace with Great Britain. Parliament was asked to agree that the colonists had the same right as citizens who lived in England. Finally in June 1776 a committee was chosen to write a declaration of independence. Thomas Jefferson wrote the draft of the declaration based on the committee's suggestions. On July 4, 1776, after two days of discussion, Congress passed the Declaration of Independence. There are four parts in the Declaration of Independence. They are the Preamble or introduction; a Statement of Rights, telling what rights all people should have: a list of 89 wrongs done by King George III, and finally, a Statement of Independence. Most of Washington's army thought they could go home after independence was declared. But the peace treaty was not signed for another two years. The turning point of the war was the battle of Saratoga in New York. The British were badly defeated. The Americans won the war in spite of great odds against them. But some things favored the Patriots. They were fighting for their homes and families. They knew the land. Their sources of supplies and new soldiers were nearly. Perhaps the greatest strength of the USA was its people. The people's courage and belief in freedom started the country. Women played am important part in the American history. Some women ran farms and businesses while the men in their families went off to flight in the war. Others served as nurses. They made clothing and gunpowder. Women served as spies. The peace treaty signed in 1783 said three things: 1. The USA was an independent nation bounded by the Mississippi River, the Great Lakes and Canada, and Florida. 2. The USA would have fishing rights off Canada's coast. 3. All war debts had to be paid by both sides. The new states had met their goal. They were free and independent. But they were not united. With independence came many problems. The U. S. were joined together under one government by the Articles of Confederation. There was a national Congress made up of representatives from each state. But Congress had almost no power at all. The 13 states acted like 13 separate little nations. The U. S. was in danger of falling. In May 1787 a meeting began in Philadelphia to change the Articles of Confederation. Representatives from all the states were present. It was soon decided that new constitution had to be written. This meeting became known as the Constitutional Convention. Washington, the leader of the army, was chosen president of the convention. The Constitution adopted by the Convention, has lasted to the present. 90 The delegates all agreed that the new government should continue to be a republic. This means that the people would elect representatives to manage their country. The delegates knew that they wanted a federal government. In such a government the power is divided between the national and the state governments. The national government would collect taxes and borrow money. It would control trade with foreign countries and between states. The national government would print or coin money. It alone could declare war. All other powers were left to the states. Matters within a state would be settled by that state. 4. Changes in the country after Declaration of Independence The members of the Constitutional Convention divided the government's power into three parts, or branches. This is called separation of powers. The legislative branch was the Congress. Its major job was to make laws. The executive branch was the President and his helpers. It was their job to carry out the laws the Congress passed. The judicial branch was the courts. They had to decide the meaning of the laws. The Congress was divided into two parts. Regardless of size each state would send two representatives to the Senate, one part of Congress. States with more people would send more delegates to the House of Representatives, the other part of Congress. In order for a law to be passed, it had to go through both parts of Congress. The new Constitution included a way to make changes, called amendments. If things didn’t work out, or if the USA grew or changed, the Constitution could be amended without being entirely changed. Many amendments were written that would make rights like freedom of the press, speech and worship part of the Constitution. Ten of these amendments were passed by the states. These first ten amendments to the Constitution are known as the Bill of Rights. April 30, 1789 was Inauguration Day for the first President. The job of President was too big for one person alone. Congress formed three departments to help Washington. These departments went to work on three of the biggest problems. The State Department would work on relations with other nations. The War 91 Department would build a national navy and army. It is now called the Department of Defense. The Treasury Department would handle the nation’s money problems. The leader of the department would be called a secretary. Each of these men advised the President. Final decisions were made by the President, however. The group of advisors became known as the Cabinet. Future Presidents would all have a Cabinet. The nation also grew and expanded while Washington was President. The new states — Vermont, Kentucky and Tennessee — entered the Union. In 1797 Washington retired. The second president became John Adams. He was a true patriot as well as a brave and stubborn man. Near the end of Adam's term as President, the government moved from Philadelphia to Washington, D. C. The most important of Adam's deeds was that he took responsibility of the peace with France in 1800. The third president of the USA was a very remarkable man, Thomas Jefferson. He was a lawyer, who wrote the Declaration of Independence. He was the representative of the United States at the court of the king of France (a diplomat). He was the first secretary of state, second vice-president and third President of the USA. While he was President the size of the country doubled. (Haiti, Louisiana, Oregon were added). 5. America in the 19th century The British-American war began in 1812. Americans were angry about British conduct on the sea. There were many Americans who had opposed the war of 1812 from the start. Finally in December 1814, a peace treaty was signed. None of the problems that were reasons for the war were settled by the treaty. However, it was agreed as part of the treaty to work out future problems peacefully. The War of 1812 is often called “the Second War for American Independence”. After the War of 1812 Americans were much more united. New states were added. The young nation was sure of itself. Women, black and Native Americans were not able to take part in government. In fact, in some cases, the government worked against them. In Jackson's time, some 92 people were starting to oppose slavery. These people were called abolitionists. Many roads, canals, steamboats and railroads were built in the early 1800s. And better transportation changed the U. S. Early roads were covered with stone and gravel. In spring they turned to mud. Most people were impressed by the railroad. It grew rapidly. England wanted to keep textile business for itself. But Slater built machines and set up the first American textile factory. Soon other factories were built. The rapid building of many factories became known as the Industrial Revolution. An outstanding invention was made in 1844. Samuel Morse sent the first telegraph message from Baltimore, Maryland, to Washington, D. C. He used a code to send his message by wire. Now Americans were closer together not only by better transportation but also by rapid communication. The USA was an exciting place to be. There were new jobs, new land and new opportunities because the Industrial Revolution and changes in transportation. Many people in other parts of the world wanted a new chance in life. Beginning in the 1830s, immigrants came to the U.S. by the thousands. Almost all of these immigrants came from the Northern Europe, mostly from England, Scotland, Ireland and Germany. People had many different reasons for coming to the U.S. (Texas, California, Oregon were added to U.S.). 6. Struggle against slavery The most troublesome question among the colonies was slavery. Originally all 13 American colonies had slavery. After the War for Independence, slavery slowly came to an end in the Northern states where slave labor, as part of the work force was not important. These became known as free states. Slavery was needed in the south, where slaves were a main part of the work force. They were one third of the population. Slaves were owned for life by their masters. They were forced to work without pay, receiving only food, clothing and housing. Many slaves fought against slavery. Some fought openly, even though that meant almost certain death. This was the punishment set by law for any slave who raised a hand against a master. Slaves also ran away. There were also revolts in which 93 people were killed. People who supported this idea called themselves abolitionists. Abolitionists held large meetings to win support for their cause. They sent papers to the South saying that slavery was evil. They asked Congress to do away with slavery, without payment to owners. Many of the leading abolitionists were whites. Free blacks and runaway slaves also joined the movement. They were active as officers, speakers and givers of money. Blacks were free if their parents were free, or if their masters set them free. Sometimes relatives and friends bought their freedom. In 1860 about eight to ten per cent of blacks living in the USA were free. Slavery was ended by a man who didn't like slavery but who opposed the abolitionists, Abraham Lincoln. In 1861 Lincoln became the President of the USA. The election showed that by that time the USA was divided into two big sections; the North and the South – those states that were against slavery and those that were for it. In the election Lincoln didn’t win in a single slave state. The candidate who was in favour of slavery didn’t win in a single free state. This showed how clearly the country was divided. The Southerners had said that if Lincoln won they would leave the Union. They would secede. Now that Lincoln was elected, they would act on that threat. South Carolina left the Union the month after Lincoln's election. By February 1861, six more states had seceded. At a meeting in Montgomery, Alabama, they formed the Confederate States of America and chose Jefferson Davis of Mississippi as their president. War began on April 12, 1861. The Confederates attacked South Carolina. Northerners rushed to fight for the Union. After South Carolina, four more slave states joined the confederacy; the other four stayed in the Union. The Union had far more states, people, money, factories, resources, railroads and ships. The Union had to beat Confederate armies and take over the Confederate states to force them hack into the USA. Confederates wanted only to depart from the Union in peace. Confederates had an easier time because they were fighting on their own familiar land, while Union troops had to fight on Southern soil. Blacks tried to join the Union army. President Lincoln said that the war was 94 “to save the Union”, not to end slavery. After a year he changed his mind. The President secretly wrote a proclamation, an order that would emancipate, set free, the slaves and led them join the Union army. He believed that black soldiers would help win the war. His Cabinet asked him to wait for a victory before announcing the new policy so that it would not look as if the government needed blacks to save the Union. Lincoln waited three months until a Union army won an important victory. It was in September 1862. Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation of January 1, 1863, declared the slaves in all Confederate areas free forever. The Civil War ended four years after it began. The USA was one nation again. Slavery was about to be ended throughout the land. Dozen years after the Civil War, from 1865 to 1877 were called Reconstruction. Four years of fighting had damaged factories and bridges torn up. Several cities, such as Atlanta, Georgia, and Columbia, South Carolina, had been burned. Many people had been driven from their homes. Some areas had very little food. Near the end of the war Congress set up the Freedmen's Bureau. It helped the poor and the homeless. It gave food, blankets, and housing to freedmen, persons just set free from slavery and to refugees, whites and blacks who fled from their homes because of the fighting. It also set up schools for black children. From 1865 to 1870, three constitutional amendments changed life for blacks. The 13th Amendment, ratified late in 1865, ended all slavery everywhere in the USA. The 14th Amendment made black citizens of the USA equal in rights and status to any other citizen. The 15th Amendment gave blacks everywhere in the USA the right to vote. In addition the South became more democratic during the Reconstruction period. More people took part in government than ever before. Secret societies such as the Ku Klux Klan were formed. The Klan started in Tennessee in 1866. Members wore hoods. The Klan was against everyone and everything connected with Reconstruction. They beat and killed blacks. They burned schools and churches. They attacked people who had come to run to Freedmen's 95 Bureaus and to teach in schools. They frightened people to try to keep them from voting or holding office. The Klan grew more violent as the Reconstruction governments grew stronger. The Klan officially broke up in 1871. From 1890 to 1901 Southern states took steps to stop most blacks from voting. All voters had to pay a poll tax. Many blacks were too poor. All voters had to take a test to show they could read and understand the state constitution. Often, well-educated blacks were told they had failed, but whites with little education were told they passed. Most blacks had not been able to vote before March 1867. Blacks also lost the right to use public places, such as trains, streetcars, hotels, theaters and restaurants freely. Southern states passed many laws to separate the races in such places. The nation was reunited. The North and South stopped arguing in the 1890s over rights for blacks. The Civil War, 1861— 1865, had made clear that one part of the country could not pull out and form another country. The end of the Civil war saw more and more people moving west. The west was seen as a place where a person could make a new life. The country of the Native Americans and the mountain men was being settled by miners, ranchers and farmers. 7. America in the second half of the 19th century The transcontinental railroads finished the conquest of the West. Both coasts, Atlantic and Pacific, were tied firmly together. Railroads brought more settlers to the West. The untamed wilderness, loved and respected by the Native Americans, was taken from them to build western ranches, farms, factories, railroads and cities. The Native Americans fought for the land. They lost and were forced to live on reservations. New states were formed and added Union, completing the 48 mainland states. The late 19th century was characterized in the USA by the evolution in farming which came with the use of machinery and science. Such farm machinery as threshers, binders, rotary plows, and disc harrows became widely used. Later the combined harvester-thresher, or combine, replaced 96 separate machines such as the reaper, harvester and thresher. The farm machines were at first pulled by horses. Later they were pulled by tractors or became selfpowered with gasoline engines. There have always been two major parties in politics in the U. S. Since I860 these parties have been the Republican and the Democratic parties. Sometimes a third party appears. One of the most important of these third parties was the Papulist party. Populist means "people". The party was started in 1892. The membership was made up largely of farmers and working people. They felt that the government did not think their problems were very important. In the election of 1892 the Populist party suggested a number of changes. These changes seemed very revolutionary at those times. People who were against the populists said such changes would destroy the American way of life. Populist wanted: 1) an income tax that would rise as the amount of money a person had rose; 2) election of the U. S. senators directly by people; 3) the secret ballot — so no one could know how a person voted; 4) a shorter working day for labor. These changes became law in time and some of the Populist ideas (1, 2) became part of the Constitution of the USA. A revolution took place in industry as well as in farming. In the Industrial Revolution factory machines replaced handwork, simple machines and home crafts. The Civil War speeded up the growth of industry. The most important changes in American life during the Industrial Revolution came about because of inventions. The typewriter, telephone, electric light, phonograph and automobile all brought changes in American life during the first 30 years after the Civil War. The U.S. is a land of immigrants – people born in other countries. More people have come to the USA than to any other country. The original 13 colonies were settled mainly by people from England, Ireland and Scotland. Fewer than one million immigrants came to the U.S. in the 50 years from 1790 to 1840. In the next 80 years more than 35 million immigrants came. 97 Most people came because they believed that the U. S. was a land of opportunity — a land where they and their children would have a new start in life and a good chance to succeed. About 17 million immigrants came to the U. S. from 1840 to 1900. About 18 million more entered between 1900 and 1920. These immigrants settled in cities for the most part. They tended to settle together in sections of the city where they could live among people from home. They kept their customs and their native languages alive. QUESTIONS FOR CONTROL 1. Who were the first explorers of America? 2. When was America opened by Columbus? 3. What colony was formed in America first? 4. Why had people from England moved to America? 5. Why did people in America start the War for Independence? 6. When was Declaration of Independence adopted? 7. How many colonies were first united in one state? 8. Who wrote the text of Declaration of Independence? 9. What was stated in this Declaration? 10. What changes took place in the country after the Conventional Congress? 11. When was the first Inauguration Day for the President? 12. Who was the first President of America? 13. What departments were formed by the Congress to help President? 14. Name the second and the third President of America. 15. What do you know about the British-American war of 1812? 16. How had America changed in the 19th century? 17. What can you say about struggle against slavery? Who were abolitionists? 18. Tell about the Reconstruction period. 19. What amendments were added to Constitution about the blacks? 20. What political parties were formed in America in 19th c? 21. What can you say about America at the end of 19th century? 98 TASKS FOR SELF-CONTROL Module 1. History of England from ancient times to the XIVth century 1. Ancient times of Britain. 2. The Roman conquest of Britain. 3. Compare Anglo-Saxons and Romans. 4. Danish Raid on Britain. 5. Danelaw and Danegeld. 6. Norman Conquest of Britain: reasons and consequences. 7. William the Conqueror. 8. Domesday Book. 9. Normans in England. 10.England after William the Conqueror. 11. Appearance of towns. 12. Development of crafts and trade. 13. English society in Middle Ages. 14. Crisis of kingship and War of Roses. Module 2. History of England in XV-XXth centuries 1. The Tudor England. 2. Hundred Years War. 3. Elizabeth I. 4. The Stuart England. 5. Republic in England. 6. England in the 18th century. 7. Great Britain in the 19th century. 8. Queen Victoria. 9. Great Britain at the end of 19th century. 10. Great Britain at the beginning of the 20th century. 11.The World War I and II for Great Britain. 99 12.Conservative policy of M.Thacher. 13.Great Britain at the end of the 20th century. Module 3. History of the United States of America 1. Discovering of America. 2. War for Independence. 3. First presidents of the USA. 4. Abolitionists in America. 5. Development of the USA in the 18th century. 6. America in 19th century. 7. Position of Great Britain and the USA in the world. 100 LIST OF TOPICS FOR REPORTS Module 1. History of England from ancient times to the XIVth century. 1. Norman Kings of England. 2. Henry II and Thomas a Becket. 3. Kings of Plantagenet dynasty: Richard I and King John, Henry III. 4. Kings of Plantagenet dynasty: Edward I, Edward II and Edward III. 5. Richard II and Wat Tiler. 6. House of Lancaste: Henry IV, V, VI. 7. House of York: Edward IV, V, Richard III. 8. William Shakespeare – three periods of work. 9. English literature of the 15th century (R.Hood’s ballads). 10. English literature of the 16th century. Module 2. History of England in XV-XXth centuries 1. House of Tudor: Henry VII, Henry VIII. 2. St Thomas More. 3. House of Tudor: Edward VI, Queen Mary. 4. Queen Elizabeth I. 5. House of Stuart: James I, Charles I. 6. Oliver Cromwell and Commonwealth. 7. House of Stuart: Charles II, James II, William III and Mary II, Anne. 8. House of Hannover: George I, II, III, IV. 9. House of Hannover: William IV and Victoria. 10.House of Winsor. Elizabeth II. 11.English literature of the 17th century. 12. English literature of the 18th century. 13. English literature in the beginning of the 19th century. 14. English literature in the second half of the 19th century. 15. British colonial policy. 101 16.Queens of England – Elizabeth I and Victoria. 17.London – capital of Great Britain. Module 3. History of the United States of America 1. President of the USA: duties and rights. 2. America – the land of immigrants. 3. J.Washington – the first President of America. 4. War for American independence. 5. American Constitution. 6. Abolition of slavery in the USA. 102 APPROXIMATE QUESTIONS FOR EXAM Module 1. History of England from ancient times to the XIVth century 1. Britain in ancient times. 2. Invasion of Britain by Celts. 3. Anglo-Saxon Conquest of Britain. 4. Life of Anglo-Saxon tribes in Britain. 5. Conversion to Christianity. 6. Danish Raid on Britain. 7. Danelaw and Danegeld. 8. Norman Conquest of Britain: reasons and consequences. 9. William the Conqueror. 10. First registration on the country - Domesday Book. 11. Normans in England. 12. England after William the Conqueror. 13. Appearance of towns. 14. Development of crafts and trade. 15. Artisan’s workshop. 16. English society in Middle Ages. 17. Crisis of kingship and War of Roses. Module 2. History of England in XV-XXth centuries 1. The Tudor England. 2. Henry VIII and Reformation period. 3. Hundred Years War. 4. Elizabeth I. 5. The Stuart England. 6. Republic in England. 7. England in the 18th century. 8. England in the 19th century. 9. Queen Victoria. 10. England at the end of 19th century. 103 11. Great Britain in the 20th century. 12. World War I and II for Great Britain. 13. Conservative policy of M.Thatcher. 14. Queen Elizabeth II. Module 3. History of the United States of America 1. Discovering of America. 2. War for Independence. 3. Struggle against slavery. 4. America in 19th century. 5. America in the 20th century. 6. American Presidents. 104 CONCLUSION In the course of lectures on the discipline “History and Culture of the English speaking countries” you have studied the main points about the history of Great Britain and the United States of America: ancient times, invasions, royal dynasties, republic and so on. We hope that you will use the learned material in your future activity. This knowledge will help you to understand foreign people, foreign texts and to interpret them adequately. Don’t forget that countries are developing and changing, the scientists are looking for new facts from the history. Read newspapers and magazines about Great Britain, United States of America and other English speaking countries. Try to enrich your knowledge and use them in your professional activity. LITERATURE FOR ADDITIONAL READING Основная литература: 1. Дрыгина, И.В. История и культура Великобритании. [Текст] / И.В.Дрыгина. - Красноярск: СибГТУ, 2004. - 196 с. 2. Усова, Г.С. История Англии. [Текст] / Г.С.Усова. - СПб.: Питер Пресс, 1999. - 253 с. 3. Dowall, D. An Illustrated History of Britain. [Text] / D.Dowall – Longman, 1997. – 188 с. Дополнительная литература: 4. History and culture of Great Britain (История и культура Великобритании): Вопр. и метод. указания к изучению курса в рамках дисциплины "История и культура стран изучаемого языка" студентами специальности 022900 "Перевод и переводоведение" очн. формы обучения/ Сиб. гос. технол. ун-т ; Сост. И.В. Дрыгина. - Красноярск: СибГТУ, 2004. - 40 с. 5. Богородицкая, В.Н. The World of Britain. [Текст]: учебник / В.Н.Богородицкая, Л.В.Хрусталева. – М.: Версия, 2000. – 240 с. 6. Бурова, И.И. История Англии. Абсолютная монархия. [Текст] / И.И.Бурова.- СПб.: Питер Пресс, 1997. - 224 с. 105 7. Бурова, И.И. История Англии. Парламентская монархия. [Текст] / И.И.Бурова.- СПб.: Питер Пресс, 1997. - 224 с. 8. Голицынский, Ю. Великобритания. [Текст] / Ю. Голицынский – СПб.: КАРО, 2000. – 477 с. 9. Гуреева, Ю.Ф. Глубокие корни. [Текст] / Ю.Ф. Гуреева. - Обнинск, 1998 .- 71 с. 10. Зайцева, С.Д. Ранняя Британия. [Текст] / С.Д.Зайцева. – Москва, 1975. – 254 с. 11. Кузнецова, И.С. Англия: история, география, культура. [Текст] / И.С.Кузнецова. – Киев, 1976. – 258 с. 12. Павлоцкий, В.М. Знакомимся с Британией. [Текст] / В.М.Павлоцкий – СПб.: ОРАКУЛ, 1999. – 414 с. 13. Павлоцкий, В.М. Знакомимся с Америкой. [Текст] / В.М.Павлоцкий – СПб.: ОРАКУЛ, 1999. – 334 с. 14. Павлоцкий, В.М. Открой для себя Британию. [Текст] / В.М.Павлоцкий – СПб.: БАЗИС, 2000. – 428 с. 15. Синельникова, М.В. Это Лондон. География. История. Культура. Достопримечательности. [Текст] / М.В.Синельникова – СПб.: КОРОНА принт, 2002. - 352с. 16. Томахин, Г.Д. По странам изучаемого языка. [Текст] / Г.Д.Томахин – М.: Просвещение, 1993. – 256 с. 17. Школьный англо-русский страноведческий словарь: Великобритания, США, Австралия. [Текст] / авт.-сост. И.М.Ошуркова – М.: Дрофа, 2000. – 192 с. Интернет-ресурсы: 18. Электронные библиотеки (Superlinguist, Filologia, Gumer, Countries, Wikipedia, E-lingvo и др.). 19. Базы данных JSTOR, EBSCO, ИРБИС и др. 20. Специализированные информационно-справочные предмету данной дисциплины. 106 системы по SUPPLEMENT A. KEY WORDS Iberians Celts Romans Anglo-Saxon tribes Druids King Arthur Conversion to Christianity Danelaw Danegeld Normans William the Conqueror Domesday Book Britain Scotland Wales Artisan’s workshop Apprentice Medieval guild Monarchy Plantagenet dynasty Lancaster dynasty Tudor dynasty Stuart dynasty Hanover dynasty War of Roses Henry VIII Period of Reformation Catholics Protestants Elizabeth I Bloody Mary Hundred Years War Commonwealth Oliver Cromwell Glorious Revolution Victoria Tories Whigs Parliament R.Walpole Columbus Virginia War for Independence Declaration of Independence Constitution President Congress J. Washington Confederate States Abolitionism Civil war Immigrants 107 Учебное издание Инна Валерьевна Дрыгина История и культура стран изучаемых языков Курс лекций 108