Reports and presentations

LECTURE REPORTS AND PRESENTATIONS Scientific report writing requires the use of certain techniques and conventions that are detailed, strict and not always easy to master. The main purpose of a scientific report is to communicate. A typical structure and style have evolved to convey essential information and ideas as concisely and effectively as possible. The main aim of the report is to state your opinion on the issue or to provide precise information about a practical investigation. Audience Assume that your intended reader has a background similar to yours before you started the project. That is, a general understanding of the topic but no specific knowledge of the details. The reader should be able to reproduce whatever you did by following your report. Clarity of Writing Good scientific reports share many of the qualities found in other kinds of writing. To write is to think, so a paper that lays out ideas in a logical order will facilitate the same kind of thinking. Make each sentence follows from the previous one, building an argument piece by piece. Group related sentences into paragraphs, and group paragraphs into sections. Create a flow from beginning to end. Style It is customary for reports to be written in the third person or the 'scientific passive', for example, instead of writing 'I saw', one writes 'it was observed'; rather than, 'I think that ...' one writes 'it could be stated that ...' and so on. Avoid jargon, slang, or colloquial terms. Define acronyms and any abbreviations not used as standard measurement units. Most of the report describes what you did, and thus it should be in the past tense (e.g., "values were averaged"), but use present or future tense as appropriate (e.g., "x is bigger than y" or "that effect will happen"). Employ the active rather than passive voice to avoid boring writing and contorted phrases (e.g., "the software calculated average values" is better than "average values were calculated by the software"). Typical Sections There are four major sections to a scientific report, sometimes known as IMRAD – Introduction, Methods, Results, And Discussion. Respectively, these sections structure your report to say "here's the problem, here's how I studied it, here's what I found, and here's what it means." There are additional minor sections that precede or follow the major sections including the title, abstract, acknowledgements, references, and appendices. All sections are important, but at different stages to different readers. When flipping through a journal, a reader might read the title first, and if interested further then the abstract, then conclusions, and then if he or she is truly fascinated 61 perhaps the entire paper. You have to convince the reader that what you have done is interesting and important by communicating appeal and content in all sections. Title of the report Convey the essential point of the paper. Be precise, concise, and use key words. Avoid padding with phrases like "A study of ..." or headlines like "Global warming will fry Earth!" It is usual to write the title as one phrase or sentence. A good title is brief and informative. Titles should not exceed 10 or 12 words, and they should reveal the content of the study. Many titles take one of these two forms: a simple nominal sentence (Asymmetric Information, Stock Returns and Monetary Policy) or beginning with The effect of (for example, The Effects of Financial Restrictions and Technological Diversity on Innovation). Sometimes it is impossible to make word-by-word translation from Russian into English, for example, Об оценке работы фир- мы should be translated as Assessing the Firm Performance or к проблеме хеджевых фондов is translated as Hedge Funds. Sometimes the title contains two parts, the first one is the topic, while the second is its specific details (International Financial Contagion: Evidence from the Argentine Crisis of 2001- 2002). If the report is of a very problematic issue its title may be in the form of a question (Was There a Credit Crunch in Turkey?) Introduction This section should contain a brief history of the research problem with appropriate references to the relevant literature and the purpose of the study. Introduce the problem, moving from the broader issues to your specific problem, finishing the section with the precise aims of the paper (key questions). Craft this section carefully, setting up your argument in logical order. Refer to relevant ideas/theories and related research by other authors. Answer the question "what is the problem and why is it important?" The introduction should also explain whether the study is an extension of a previous one, or whether a completely new hypothesis is to be tested. The final section of the introduction generally includes a list of all the hypotheses being tested in the study. The results of the current study are not to be referred to in the introduction. You may use the following expressions: This paper aims at deals with considers describes examines presents reports on Настоящий доклад имеет своей целью… В настоящем докладе рассматриваются….. В настоящем докладе делается описание… В настоящем докладе исследуется….. В настоящем докладе представлен…… В настоящем докладе сообщается о… … Examples of an Introduction A. There has been a European Union foreign policy, confirmed in constitutional form in the Union Treaty, since 1993. The first decade, most commentators agree, has proved to be difficult: ‘painful and problematic’ according to one. As the twenty-first century progresses, replete with an array of new challenges, the need for a reassessment, and perhaps reinvigoration of Union ‘foreign and security policy’ is widely argued. The purpose of this article is to provide both a retrospective, of the evolution of the Union’s foreign policy so far, and a prospective, of the challenges which it presently faces. B. This paper examines companies incorporated under the Companies Act 1985. Its purpose is to consider the suitability of such companies for not-forprofit-organisations ('NFPOs'). Methods Explain how you studied the problem, which should follow logically from the aims. Depending on the kind of data, this section may contain subsections on experimental details, materials used, data collection/sources, analytical or statistical techniques employed, study area, etc. Provide enough detail for the reader to reproduce what you did. Include flowcharts, maps or tables if they aid clarity or brevity. Answer the question "what steps did I follow?" but do not include results yet. Here you may use such expressions as: A method of …is proposed Data on… are discussed Present data encompass a period of … The design of the experiments was to reveal… The effect of… on… is discussed The methods used for … are discussed Предлагается метод… Обсуждаются данные по … Настоящие данные охватывают период в… Эксперименты были направлены на выявление … Обсуждается влияние на … Описываются методы, используемые для… Results Explain your actual findings, using subheadings to divide the section into logical parts, with the text addressing the study aims. Tables are an easy and neat way of summarizing the results. An alternative or additional way of presenting data is in the form of line graphs, bar-charts, pie-charts, etc. Graphs, charts and illustrations are referred to as 'figures' (for example, Fig. 1) in the text of the report. All figures should be numbered in order of appearance in the text. For each table or graph, describe and interpret what you see (you do the thinking -- do not leave this to the reader). Expressions to describe results obtained may be: The most important results are as follows The results indicate the dominant role of… The results of … are discussed The results of observations are supported by… Самые важные результаты имеют сле- дующий вид… Результаты указывают на доминирую- щую роль… Обсуждаются результаты … Результаты наблюдений дополняются Discussion This is the most difficult section of a report to write and requires considerable thought and care. Essentially it is a consideration of the results obtained in the study, guided by any statistical tests used, indicating whether the hypotheses tested are considered true or are to be rejected. This is best thought of in three steps: the main results must be very briefly summarized; the procedure must be critically assessed and weaknesses noted; and a final evaluation of the results made in terms of the design, leading to a final judgment concerning the hypotheses being tested. The discussion can only refer to results, which are presented in the results section. Any detailed results which only appear in the appendixes cannot be discussed. Evaluation of the results should include reference to other research with indications as to whether or not the current findings are in agreement with other findings (that is, reference is made to the introduction). The main conclusions reached should be summarized at the end of the discussion. Suggestions for follow-up research can also be given. Discuss the importance of what you found, in light of the overall study aims. Stand backs from the details and synthesize what has (and has not) been learned about the problem, and what it all means. Say what you actually found, not what you hoped to find. Begin with specific comments and expand to more general issues. Recommend any improvements for further study. Answer the question "what is the significance of the research?" Important Note: this section is often combined with either the Results section or the Conclusions section. Decide whether understanding and clarity are improved if you include some discussion as you cover the results, or if discussion material is better as part of the broader summing up. Conclusions Restate the study aims or key questions and summarize your findings using clear, concise statements. Keep this section brief and to the point. Acknowledgments This is an optional section. Thank people who directly contributed to the paper, by providing data, assisting with some part of the analysis, proofreading, typing, etc. It is not a dedication; so don't thank Mom and Dad for bringing you into the world, or your roommate for making your coffee. References Within the text, cite references by author and year unless instructed otherwise, for example "Comrie (1999) stated that ..." or "several studies have found that x is greater than y (Comrie 1999; Smith 1999)." For two authors, list both names, and for three or more use the abbreviation "et al." (note the period) following the first name, for example "Comrie and Smith (1999)" or "Comrie et al. (1999)." Attribute every idea that is not your own to avoid plagiarism. Making Oral Presentations The material of your presentation should be concise, to the point and tell an interesting story. In addition to the obvious things like content and visual aids, the following are just as important as the audience will be subconsciously taking them in: Your voice - how you say it is as important as what you say. Body language – a subject in its own right and something about which much has been written and said. In essence, your body movements express what your attitudes and thoughts really are. Appearance – first impressions influence the audience's attitudes to you. Dress appropriately for the occasion. As with most personal skills oral communication cannot be taught. Instructors can only point the way. So as always, practice is essential, both to improve your skills generally and also to make the best of each individual presentation you make. Preparation. Prepare the structure of the talk carefully and logically, just as you would for a written report. What are:  the objectives of the talk?  the main points you want to make? Make a list of these two things as your starting point. Write out the presentation in rough, just like a first draft of a written report. Review the draft. You will find things that are irrelevant or superfluous – delete them. Check if the story is consistent and flows smoothly. If there are things you cannot easily express, possibly because of doubt about your understanding, it is better to leave them unsaid. Never read from a script. It is also unwise to have the talk written out in detail as a prompt sheet - the chances are you will not locate the thing you want to say amongst all the other text. You should know most of what you want to say – if you don't then you should not be giving the talk! So prepare cue cards which have key words and phrases (and possibly sketches) on them. Postcards are ideal for this. Don't forget to number the cards in case you drop them. Remember to mark on your cards the visual aids that go with them so that the right OHP or slide is shown at the right time. Rehearse your presentation - to yourself at first and then in front of some colleagues. The initial rehearsal should consider how the words and the sequence of visual aids go together. How will you make effective use of your visual aids? Making the presentation. Greet the audience (for example, 'Good morning, ladies and gentlemen'), and tell them who you are. Good presentations then follow this formula:  tell the audience what you are going to tell them,  then tell them,  at the end tell them what you have told them. Keep to the time allowed. If you can, keep it short. It's better to under-run than over-run. As a rule of thumb, allow 2 minutes for each general overhead transparency or Powerpoint slide you use, but longer for any that you want to use for developing specific points. 35mm slides are generally used more sparingly and stay on the screen longer. However, the audience will get bored with something on the screen for more than 5 minutes, especially if you are not actively talking about it. So switch the display off, or replace the slide with some form of 'wallpaper' such as a company logo. Stick to the plan for the presentation, don't be tempted to digress - you will eat up time and could end up in a dead-end with no escape! Unless explicitly told not to, leave time for discussion - 5 minutes is sufficient to allow clarification of points. The session chairman may extend this if the questioning becomes interesting. At the end of your presentation ask if there are any questions - avoid being terse when you do this as the audience may find it intimidating (ie it may come across as any questions? - if there are, it shows you were not paying attention). If questions are slow in coming, you can start things off by asking a question of the audience - so have one prepared. Delivery. Speak clearly. Don't shout or whisper - judge the acoustics of the room. Don't rush, or talk deliberately slowly. Be natural - although not conversational. Deliberately pause at key points - this has the effect of emphasising the importance of a particular point you are making. Avoid jokes - always disastrous unless you are a natural expertю To make the presentation interesting, change your delivery, but not to obviously:  speed;  pitch of voice. Use your hands to emphasize points but don't indulge in to much hand waving. People can, over time, develop irritating habits. Ask colleagues occasionally what they think of your style. Look at the audience as much as possible, but don't fix on an individual - it can be intimidating. Pitch your presentation towards the back of the audience, especially in larger rooms. Don't face the display screen behind you and talk to it. Avoid moving about too much. Pacing up and down can unnerve the audience, although some animation is desirable. Keep an eye on the audience's body language. Know when to stop and also when to cut out a piece of the presentation. Visual Aids. Visual aids significantly improve the interest of a presentation. However, they must be relevant to what you want to say. A careless design or use of a slide can simply get in the way of the presentation. What you use depends on the type of talk you are giving. Here are some possibilities:  Overhead projection transparencies (OHPs);  35mm slides;  Computer projection: PowerPoint, applications such as Excel, etc.;  Video, and film;  Real objects - either handled from the speaker's bench or passed around;  Flip-chart or blackboard - possibly used as a 'scratch-pad' to expand on a point. Keep it simple though - a complex set of hardware can result in confusion for speaker and audience. Slides and OHPs should contain the minimum information necessary. To do otherwise risks making the slide unreadable or will divert your audience's attention so that they spend time reading the slide rather than listening to you.