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Арифметические алгоритмы в криптографии

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"   by $ " E a % h k E%  $ # $   $ " E #  ' h'  TU p Z * U  () V  $   d E%  ' " $  h  % $ # " " " # C h ™ b#    q  ] ' Ž{ f (n) = O(g(n)) ™ › ‘ & <%  ‰ ‰ •  = ‰ Œ ” ~ ‰ “ ‹ S  ~ g(n) a>1 b>0   n + b · g(n) + d · n, f (n) 6 f a ˜ ‹ €‡ “ { } $ g   $ †   Ž ‘ :9% ‡– ‹  k% E  'd  E E '  E  $` d E a '   $ " E a %  ( d % $      & "  E k E #   h " ™ # k  E E  C  E  k E C #%  ' & % " " E %  k l Ž{ z h  j  ‹ b "' b %  $  ' "  ™  j   j  b  $ b "' b %  $ C  ; < % 9:% & & " f (n) > n kf (n) 6 f (kn) k > 1 ( ™ ™ % $ (   $   $ j $ +  '  "` '      E a 'd '  % k $    E%  #  %d "    (  k k   & h m m  E  % E # E    Cy h%   " ' $ ' E C h  " j ' k $ B ™ k " a E m     $ $  " E a %   E  C " ™ b# " & %  h  C h z z C ' h " h% y    m  $  $  $ & E " E " E  h by $ " E # "   C  E  b "% k h  (  ( ™ " f (n) Ž ( " E'  $ E    ` h C E  ™ ™ $ 'h ' ' " %&      $ " E a %       E  b " C #%  C h m d  h&      " E " E  d b E% "  $   a %  d "  ( d * E   $  $  (  ) # hj  " E a %   E  k k E c  ' k E # " % k $  " C #% m "   ™ " " %& d ' E     `      % (  ) z  $  " E a % ` $`    E   E c $ ' kb "% k' k " C    %&  h m m  & h a   " ` $ " E #     hj '  "  $  $ $ $  # hj  " E a %    E    E $ a % k C  $   $   'h ' "   E'  E k " C #%  E n (  ) z     ' c b % b" " C #%  y    j   " %& d E "  j   $` $  " E a %  C   ` u E  % k h "     ' $   C& h   " ( d " % k '  h c h d E E  h ™ C" # hj  Cy E "  E  c D ™ ' "  $  $ %&   c ' ' " a E b "  $   ™  $     d E E h   kb "' b %    $  j  $ " a dc "  k E D % k  " E ™ h z j   $   a E ' E   # "   C b %  $ u ` ( ™ z $   $ $ y     C # hj  Cy E E  h  & D " %& b " E a % k b E%  E k     j  `      bD  j   E  # hj h E  # hj   `  m E ' k $ "  %# y j d "  ™ z $    "  E E  ` `     #     hj E E h k E D " %&     & "  E   E   "   $ E d E'  d# m  #    hj b E% %" $ 'd#   $ by " E a % h u  $ ` ( $     `   ` E  C "  E k $  " '     E  " %& b " E a % $ ( j  y     %  $ # & "  E Cy  k h c   '$  E   $ C %E h "   $  $ " E a %    E   d E " j $ ' $   # $   E d h "  " (  ) z  hj  C& h w ™ C   "   y  $  k E h'     C  h d h " " k E     d! # m E # hj dc b E% %" u    z      " $  % E   ` & 8  $  $ $ 'd#  " E a %   E   TX VW  TUV Q u  Y Q P R d "  ™ %     $  ' " $ # #  '  $ a E b " C " 'd $ h & '  # k E%  $ #   $ $ " E a % (  "    $ C " %& %  h m ` k h dc E E h $`  E E  j  "  E'   $  $  $ dc E h c  $ ' " $ a E ' " # ' a  CE hy ( ' " a E & E E'  B   $      E    C E  % " a E E " E " E ' k %# " b D % " k h' z     $         m  % z $ $  $ $`    k E%  $ # $  $ "  E' E c C& h % k h  " E a %    E  ™    $  & "  Ej  dc E E 'h E c ' % k h " m  d k ' E ( d   $ $ b %   k  $  $     "  E " %&  by " E a % h  " ™ C z  z      $  b % '         $    b " E a % $ Cy b E%  " a " D ™ C ™ u " m   `        j  k ' E %# b  j    "  " a " %& dc E E h c E dc E  m z  E  m $      c E # " " h    E  k' " m    b ¢ #  E   a E  E E ™  ( u ( $        " %&    ™ z " m  d k ' k $   "  m 'd  d# m E " %&  " E a % $ $ y  %  'd E  "           "j "       h k " % 'k k  E' $ E ` ` (         $   E   ' " (  B # dc E E h dc E h ' c E h Cy E k% E  'd ™ C C h m  $ $  C C& h  h    c     " A   " E a %     E  'h E " %k ' E & z $          Cy E E'  E  " h Cy  E  $ " % k' " h   #    hj b E% " ` ` m %  $ #   $ j  ™    E    " '       dj C  E !   &  %  E' E $ %    z   % $ 'd# k E D " %& S X  V Ut S TX VW  TUV  X  V ™ ™   $ A   $   &h %   $ #  E a % %   E a CE  " $ $  "  E%  * %E h  log N ˜ ‡ d>0 ’ ˜ ‰ Ž{ €‡ Ž“ { ˆ  h m C ™ " f (n) >   k " $  $ f (n) 6 cf ‡  ‘ ‡ ‹ { Œ › >  { ' " E k h bE " d ‡{ € Œ  ‰  } ‰ $ $ " k% E  'd n ‡ ‹ Ž€ ‘ ‰     $ y E'  E k " f (n) = O(g(n)) €  ( b  $  j f (n) ≈ g(n) c>0 f (n) 6 cg(n) f (n) ≺ g(n) g(n) ≺ f (n) f (n) ≺ g(n) a b c ?  h m      g(n) f (n) = { ‡ j     = O(g(n)) n f (n) N &    k  E % E  'd "C  "  " m d!m $ z  $   h`    c  # ! "  O(log N ) %           !  " #   $  $   $  k $ " % 'k " $ C C C& h  k E%  $ # d  $ " k E' E $  & E h "  j    ™    %  $ # h'   dc ' z" (  ' " b "% C h' 'd  dc E E  h h' '   B N   n + bg(n) + dn, a ™   $  j  b % " k   $ Cy " b %  $ ' E E ' k E%  ' " $     h   C& h 'h E   J J F N  N L L J L   N   N N  M  I  ML    z      $ y  m $ y  #  ' 'h k " ' d " m  k " % 'k " $     h  d E E h c " by  ' ™ ( z  ` $     $  'dc   k E a  Cy h%   B m  E m C h h c h d E  E l / 7 1/  6   4  5 0  345 2  1/ 0 .-,+ / j      'h %   $ z E  j   Cy h%  b$ $  ' "  $ "C  ' " "'   $ ¤  y " E  E%   l    $ B  %   C %  '$    ™ " ™ h ' " + € ‰ € ˆ   Ž€ ‡ Ž{~ ‰ “ ˆ   ˆ ‰ ‰ Œ ” ~ { ƒ‡ ‰ ™ ™ ‰ ‰ Ž€ & <% & % € { “ { } €  } ‘   S  • } ‰ ™ ‹ † ˜Ž‰ { “ ‹ ~ ‡ ’ ˜ Ž{  V ™ M (n) D(n) S(n) c k dc E # "%    E'  C %  '$ ( (  b$ % " j   €‡ Ž“ E    $ # & kj h ( % z z E     %  $ # & kj h  " h' z % E     * $      k E      b " E a % $ m * $  j   ' k E h'  '     b " E a % $ % ™  $ #  E kj h z * $ $   $ $ u  "     C c' h k a CE     b  z $ " E a % $ E * b "C $ " k E%  h      b " E a % ™ %  $ # E  & kj h  E  dc kj h  n 2n " % y 1/N k' " % k   1 AB = ((A + B)2 − A2 − B 2 ) 2 M (n) 6 3S(n) + 4n h h $ "C  $ k h%  b$ $ " k% E  'd  h      l M (n) ≺ S(n) k ( S(n) 6 3R(n) + 2n $ ' "  ™ "  E    ' $ { ˆ $ # S(n) R(n) # $ $   N2 = E'   S(n) ≺ R(n)    & ' % " h a    (  ' kj h c D h%       $  %  E' d " m m     j    j  %  $ #j  k E E C #%   " k % $ '  E dc E #  ' h k ` z  ™ b h k b E% '  k   y     $   $ j   j "  E b h ™ '  E dc E #  ' ™ m    C % $ #C E E h  d E " j h  $    " b E% "' h%      $ 'h ' C E E  $ j  N EC ™ % $ E ( $ h'  t+1 #  E l ™  ' h k    ˆ ‰ Ž‰’ { “ ‹ ~ €‡ ˜ Ž{ €‡ Ž“ { ˆ ~ ™  ‰ › ‘ ‡  ‘ ‡ ‹ { Œ › >  { {‡ € Œ  ‰  } ‰ “ ‹ S q =       h u  k " a E ( % z  $ & E " E " E  h by $ " m   C E E h    & E " k E h    a c E  " h' ' k E j  h'  '   $ ™  " $ " y   E # " " h '  C$ % $ # m $    $    k $ E%  ™ h k E a CE     " E a % " ™ # a  % h   # E ` _ " ™ # C #%       hy z  C c' h k E%  h  E  $  $   ' "  E'  E k " %k E  'd % $ # dc  $ $ k E a CE  " E a %   E   C u ` E  % k Ch  kj h  " (   n dc C  (  E # & %   ~  $   Ri   k C #% % k h b % "  M (n) D(n) n n b    E  E   A  " (  + Ž‰ €‡ †€ ‰ ‘ { { ˜‰ • $ £ %&   "   $  C   y   E  " h % C& k E%  h    m % " k E a CE d "  M O(log N log M ) E% '" # j      $   h'   ' n "` $ E a c, a = c, E  ™   m % " " ™ # (c/a) 1 − 1 c · d · n ct f (n) = d · n · 6 · t· = O(ct ) = O(nloga c ), c/a − 1 a a c/a − 1 a j  " %$   $ £ hy " " j   l a < c. ' C c' h   m  !      a>0 c>0 d>0 f (n) = c · f ( na ) + d · n  % bD %   j  " &  ! % $ % $ (   " 1 f (n) + b · g(n) + d · n. a E #  E  E  $ # k   $    ( % Œ ” ~  } b+d · g(n) = O(g(n)). f (n) 6 1 − 1/a " * N $  E " ' h a u ! "    !  "     " #   f (1) = d E a &h O(log N ) % ™ 'd#  k   S X p Z *  W UV   q a = c, $  E a $    " n = at t−1  i t  i X X c c f (n) = d · n · + d · ct = d · n · , a a i=0 i=0    O(n), f (n) = O(n log n),   O(nloga c ),  $ " % d "      a > c,  E  k E E a % C$  %& d b E%  D $ d·n f (n) 6 = O(n), 1 − c/a f (n) = d · n · t = d · n · log n, a ' k b  E  " y  ™    d E n = at E%   w E 'h  f (n) n>1  E " %  # f (n) 6 ™ ( $ # % V     %  $ #C c' h k E%  h k E a CE k l   U  (  W q q   (       c " k E % E  'd `     n n a·f 6f a· = f (n), a a N n 6 f (n) 6 O(n2 ).  1/N R(n) M (n) ≈ D(n) ≈ S(n) ≈ R(n). 1 −N 1 1 − N N +1 ™       $     $    j " kb "  Ej % d $ " CE "   % k " a E & E ` & ( z   l  $ $ $ $ " E " E  $  h by " $ E # "  " E a %     E   '  $    $  " d " # ' "` ' C$ %  '$     s ' " b$ % " j   & <%  /     5    4/  1  2  1/  6   4  5      5    4/  1  2   1/  -+ /  6 -  r  ' z ' h E%   z   ™ b  a= k−1 X i=0 %  $ 'h '  (  ai 2i = (. . . (ak−1 2 + ak−2 )2 + . . . + a1 )2 + a0 . z a % C$  # k h C   E   y  ` ¥5 M (n) = O(n log n ×  $  d   & % %E  $ '    $   k " 'E d ' E   b h "  $ j  " ™ # (  %& k  $ " % k' k k (   " r→∞  j   C   E  " ™ h'  E%  # & E  E # E k E%  $ 'd#  k E ` E%  $  %  $ # k E $   j  E`  d E E' ` `  " %& d ' E  C$   d a z  E h   E ™ ™ C CE  # hj   E h'   dc  & % $   #% $ m  '   E%  # y & E C c' h  E  j   # "' k E%  $ 'd#   $ m (  %  B m ™ z     j   & ' E   E%  # & E k E #       E    b "'     "  " E  a  # E " %& " " " ™ #  "    z  j ' h kb %     j ™ ™ ™  C #%      %  C h  " ( ¤ h&  C " k h & % k      $     j " '  ' C h " k % `      b % '  %    $ #j d h a `  `  " ' ™ b z $   " b E% "' h%     $ j  $   %  $ #  kj h   # E  D " C ' h  b "% h ™ d    j " ™ #  " k E # E  & b E%  # E 'd   C   m   "    & % $      $     E  ' % h'   k E a CE " %&  & E E h  " E a % $ $ $      $ E    E " 'd#  E % k Ch   " (  ' ™  a % ' " %#  " ` ` u % $  z  k E a CE  b" " % E  'd E Ca E%  $ # z E     E  % $ # dc kj h    z  j   C c' h k E h'  j   k E%  $ 'd# % k     s ™ h ™ " m E  dc kj h  ™   $  $   "  k " h c b E% '" $  $  "` bh " b E% "'  h%  $ k E  E l     % C    $   "     " b E% "'  h%  $   E%  $ 'd# ' k $ "  %# y  ` (  ¢    z j   E j   & E " k E # E k E%  $ 'd# % k h E by " h " d E E "b     E  ' %$    "j  h % k l m £  &h  s z j    " k    $ C b %  '$ ( (   $  ' $    E h  " E a % C$   E   E " %k ' E %  &  ¤ m % (         " # ' C   h   c  "  E %# y  k E E # C " c d C h   d b E%   $ B         %   j  dc a E ' k E%  '   $   $  " # d "   $  "  % k h dc & % ' h E c b  j   $ # E   $    b "C u $ u & D &  Cy h%    E ' "  ' E  C$  (  $ % k Ch dc m  " (  ) k E  v m j # E  d E E a %   h k b " " C $ h   h c E " %& ' c ( % ™   kj h c D h% '  m   D m z * ' h  z  j  n Cy b E% C h j   m E   u ™ & & 4 , % "    a CE $ #   V (x) = xB1 + B0    n m   ¤  E  logr+1 2 → 0 n E   E    j b C     $   m $  $  m  E $ b E% '   E d "  ™   E     j $ '  E dc $   "   B  $  k E'    x  %  m h'   $   % $ #    "  % kC bE " E j   M (n) ≺ f (n) = O(nlog2 3 ) " k E%  h'   a (   ( (  E h "     x=2k U (x) = xA1 + A0    E  & " d m $ C  E c " % * &  m E ' " %#  E E Ca k'   C h E E '    k "  $    C #%  ' &  ™ ™  ` $ "  E E%  $ C #%   n + cn, 2 $  d #% y E E  $ $  "  C " j B C h m    j "C  b %  #  hj D j        a 'd# & u n/2 'd# % k l b E  ) \ d " ™ C    ¢  ™ #' " E E h   = 1,585 . . . k " '$   TX  ! " c E x "   " 'd b    E    j  b  % f (n) = 3f " % k'  k E *   (  *  V 8 $   " M (n) = O(n1+logr+1 2 ) " $ a h    ( r  j   h'  '      E " ™ # "C  h%  $ × log log n) $ #  b  q      `  `   n + 2M (n) + 2n. 2 E%  $      E   E 'h # ' " (    " E dc E E " #   2 1 1 (1 − δ) − (1 − δ)2 = (1 − δ 2 ). N N N " E  b $  E'   j i  C C #%   " 'd  (  ' E x(i + 1) = 2x(i) − N x(i)2 . C  CE     ( C %  '$   ( ' "  , $ £ hy " d x(0), x(1), . . . " E z    $ " E " ™  E ¢ E  $  E'   ™ d % C %  $ " k 1/N  a % h " C #%   $ " E a %  E%  '     c " c "  i h N 1 2 k $   $ #   E a  $  '  (  b E   #  j  j δ< "   j  $ "   E   m Cy m " = A B1 %# y %   `  m E E d  % m    C "   $ " E "  E%  ' ' R(n) ≺ M (n) M (n)≺S(n)≺R(n)≺M (n) j   d m " %&  E E'     $  C #%  ™ #  A B b C  &    ' b ™ a  l   E x(0) " $ & g R & % " $ E    "  " $ $ v  $ B log n ¤ 4 , $ ™ E k R(n) ≺ D(n) D(n) ≺ M (n) + R(n) ≺ R(n) R(n) ≺ D(n)    Cy (  R(n) 6 R k ™ " %& ` bD E O(n2 ) ' m d ' E  £  x(i + 1) = 2x(i) − N x(i)2 = E £ k  E C h b E £ ™ C  E  E a (1 − δ) !   d m ! C   # C$   k k E 1 N  c ( dc  & %  $ x(i) = (    " m  ' E . . . , x(i), . . . R(n) ≺ M (n) A = 2 k A1 + A 0 , A n = 2k) B = 2 k B1 + B 0 . AB = (2k A1 + A0 )(2k B1 + B0 ) = 22k A1 B1 + 2k (A0 B1 + A1 B0 ) + A0 B0 = = (22k + 2k )A1 B1 + 2k (A0 B1 + A1 B0 − A0 B0 − A1 B1 ) + (2k + 1)A0 B0 = = (22k + 2k )A1 B1 + 2k (A0 − A1 )(B1 − B0 ) + (2k + 1)A0 B0 . c > 0, log2 3 = Na  /     5    4/  1  2  1/  6   4  5  ,,    5    4/  1  2   1/  -+ /  6 - , ( ( &  ¤   z b %  m C   k $ " %k E  'd  z  % C  $ " k  ' "%  ' C h       ™ #` "  ™ " & %  hj     j    'd % E  E E  " $ $ " k E%  `      9        " %& '   ¢ / % ™ z       $   k " k% E  'd  E ' dc " ' d " %& " m * j    %  $ #   $ %E h ™   %h   g ' " %&  & O(M (log N ) log N ) = O(M (n)n) B ( #% C E    m ™   E%  % h  $ h `  c h d #  ` z $  h   " E a % C$  E   Cy   " D C ( #   (  z     j C #%  "    b %" C  % %" h c 'h E " %k ' ™ E  d y  $ ` B m z   b E% "' h  " C " C  h m  k  y k  ' "%  '  $ # b " $   h%  C %  $   $ k $   " ™ %    s C #%    #j  d "  E "    ™ # " (  E%  '  $ j   $ E  "   " b " E k C h m ™  E E  ™  ( % $  "    u $   j $  (  '  " "  E # E dc E  $  %y " k E bD E C by %  " %& C k ` z m A  ' C "    C  h E   y u ? € ˆ ™ — Ž{ ‡ ‹ Ž€ ‘ €  Ž{ ‰ “ ˆ Ž€ ‘ } ™  ™ z            h " %& ' & D % $ b# " bD E C ™     ™ E E a ( ™ ™ (   j     ` %h   g ' " %&      h dc E %# ' " $ a E k Ri  " $   $   # # E m    n %  $ b# " b E% "'  h%  $  " ( % k %" h   $           & & bD %  E k E h  a c E  # hj % k h` b E%   " k " % k' k m m ( ™     `  k l % %h  g ' " %& ' %k E  'd  E%   h % $ #  E  £ X  V Ut S  t  $  $    q 8 E %h    g ' " %&  " E a %  E   p   £  (  E%   h , b h    ™    $ E  "    " k E C #%    z %  'd  h    c m (  ( ( z    b "C  "  $ u   "  $ & ' % C E k E C #%  h  "  $ " $ m £ z  $    h         E % E  'd b E% "'  h%  $ ' k "  %# y   j %h  ( #  j   C h ¢  bD %      ` m m   "       $ " E a % C$  E  Cy E # " "   Eb " # j E    ] P 8   " #  "   %& " %& " ™ #  E   S ( U *  X Ut S p p Z     V % $ #b % %"  h`  m # h j   ™  j  $ "   $ C %E m ( ( " 'h  $  $     $ " E a %   E  k Cy  $ £ "  $ h%  k $    " C #%  % h $ £   hy " " h' '    E   y E a CE + '   " C c' h`    y   E % E  'd C ™ j  $ $       %h   g '  ™      % C #%  "   ™ k  # j E   hy m ™ E   y %   $ # E %  $ # % C& k E%  h     b " E a %  E h'  ' A B 0 ri−1 2  ™ $ " %&   h a   rk−i = dk−i+2 rk−i+1 + rk−i+2 > rk−i+1 + rk−i+2 > fi + fi−1 = fi+1 . E k E h a  E a % $   Eb  & E E b E%    E  ' " b$ ‹ ‰   &h $  $     ( E E h B  h k      Cy E E' ™ h  E  k " ( u  S  '  g  E a % $ c E  (  Cy h%   $  k ' "   k + 1 6 1 + blog2 Nc E  "   "  dc $   " b E% "' $   E%    $ " ri −ri−1 # "  $ " %& 'h "   %      E £ h   ( %  l k E%  O(n0 (ni−1 − ni + 1)) = i=0 " E a  $  %& &  h%  k %"    { “    " j    j k X = O(n0 (n−1 − nk + k + 1)) = k X $   " ` C   $ k $ C _ A h % k " "   j  d h a dh h  h k k ™   C  h E  E ri   $`     $ " E "  $ a % ™  #     ™ '     &h   a %  h  C (    # E = O n0 O(ni (ni−1 − ni + 1)) 6 i=0 E   $  E  % k E   & E h & '  (  E ' E C  kj b % E 'h #  s A>B>0 rk−1 =dk+1 rk  $ &  ™   %"  E   E C #%  ‰‹ ƒ   E   d b E% " ri−1 2  E h = O(M (n) log n) $ " ™ h  E  j y - { €— „ “‘ ‰‹ ƒ { {—   a %  k |ri | < C ™    $ n = log N h m m D O(n) ni  & m h ? { { €— “œ { „ ‰ ‘  ˜‰ “œ ‘  € ˆ ~ ‡ ‘ { {— „ “’ $ "  $ l &h  i=0    ( ˆ ˜“ z { › ‘  ( = & ˜“ ˆ ‘ ‰ “ Ž Œ †€   % k' ™  %  " E k X E k '   ‰‡ ˆ Š 1 + blogR N c i=1, . . . , k+2 "      { › Ž{‹ €  } €  e , % k x2 = x + 1  N >0     ™     ™ S   fk+1 = fk + fk−1 > Rk−2 + Rk−3 = Rk−3 (R + 1) = Rk−3 R2 = Rk−1 ,  z a %  E    C  h E k E a  " ™ #  ™ ‰‡  { “— –  √ 5 E    C$ k  $ k $   " C #%  %  h a ‰   R= 1+2 k=2 & % h &    E  b " C #%  C h  C   l  ' " “ €  V  & " f0 , f1 , . . . % O(M (n)(k + 1)) = O(M (n) log n) 6 O(n2 log n).  m  " %  '$ (  b$ % " Ž‘ ‰ E h a f0 = 0 f1 = 1 fk = fk−1 + fk−2 k > 2 k >1 fk >Rk−2 n  ™ %  k l  ‰‹ ƒ ˜“ €  i=1, . . . , k rk+1 = 0   m  E  a d   ™ ( E j l fi 6rk+1−i & bD %     j  "` "  E E'  A > r−1 > fk+2 > Rk k + 1 6 1 + blogR N c   ` ™ C '    € “  " € ˆ ri−2 =di ri−1 +ri E (  u B 0 + k  E   iN '  Cy  C " _ `  u xi A + y i B = r i .  k E E%  ' 'd a z E u ™  a h '    0 6 A, B < N $ & E E h%  m  CE  j # E y  (   C  h E  E   ™ C " &  k E # E i=0 # k E  h  £  E $ c ' % k h d    Ej  ' h  ( i = −1, 0 C   E ™  a %  h  d ' E  "C  h E b C$ " E'  $  ' " €› Ž ‹ ‰   Cy h%  C$ % R #% j  $   xi A + yi B = (xi−2 − di yi−1 )A + (yi−2 − di yi−1 )B = = (xi−2 A + yi−2 B) − di (xi−1 A + yi−1 B) = ri .  # d  $ " k $     " %# " " %&   kj b %   g  S  di = bri−2 /ri−1 c ri = ri−2 − di ri−1 xi = xi−2 − di xi−1 yi = yi−2 − di yi−1 i=i+1 d E z "  $   m  & E E bh ™ % $  b$ % " j l r−1 = A r0 = B x−1 = 1 y−1 = 0 x0 = 0 y0 = 1 i=0 ri > 0 E   E " E  E ™ #     % E %h $ " E a %         xi " m   &h '  g   % k $ $ yi  ' ™ O(M (log N ) log N ) = O(M (n)n) A B  %  $ # ZN y % $  " " $ ( E 'h # ' " E'  i x k   ! !   (  %  %&  h ™ " c bD E '   rk = (A, B) ' " 'd#    " % 'k " $ $ " ™ #b    B Ax + By = (A, B) h n = dlog2 N e  b %  d "  $ #   $ & E " C #% i E !    % ™ b   d# m 'h    $  i −1 < i 6 k (  % b    j  "  &   h i "C %" k' $ %E a $ " E a  yk $ u " h * h E $` % $ xk (      " #  n = log N a " C h d E ri A A−B+N O(M (n)) R=R−N 2i ai = (. . . (2an−1 + an−2 )2 + . . . a1 )2 + a0 AB = a0 B + 2(a1 B + . . . 2(an−2 B + 2an−1 B) . . .).       z   $  S X p Z *  W UV $    % ' " E ' % $ #   E a %  $   D b   ]  = u $ v   "  " S ( U * X  V Ut S p    T S 88  /     5    4/  1  2  1/  6   4  5   ,  1       5 4    5    1/  -+ /  6 - ,  ` ™   $  `¢ m z  $   k $     "C   " " & '  k E % E  'd % k h " ™ b# " 'h &   m z b %    z       &h  ™   ™ (   m   %  $ # ( d " 'd#  Cy ' $ _ ™ " 'd# ™ " %   &     %  $ # d "  E  %  $ # k% k' " $ a h " '   z $ 'd#  k " C $ y    $ h " %      $ y k E%  h k " k% E  'd  " ' "  z ¢ j  'd d " b "% C  %  $ # d E h c  $ ™ # " E " j ' $  % $  g z $ $ $ % k " k  $   E   " #  % $ #  %d  c k E%  $ 'd# u     !   " !     "     ( $ $ $   $ by " E a % a  " k ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( (         s   U  = =   '  " 'd#  b % '  E%   h ™ " (       'dc ` " m ™      j      b " %  j E  'd E a '  " 'd#  b % '  E   m m ™ " a %   ( C ' " E'  $  (   E b "j k'  a  & E " ' " $ # ' m   $ %  $ # k E j h'     k " k h c E b E% " ™ " %  $ g ™   %h   g ' " %&  & E E  D  $ by  ™    %  #  & E E hj  k l    S  P 8 = ( (     & E "  "  E $  $  $  ' "  E'  k " k% E  'd d " "  m ¢ z     '  h%  $  " '        j  `   " ' h % k hb "C $ u    E`   E%  $ 'd# $  $  b " m  C 'Ÿ " %$ '  (   y k  ' "%  ' C h  % $ # z  ` (     ` ` z $   k E%  $ 'd# b "  C h    " D C #% C E % k h C   E   j  c b" " E   % $  a C  E  C $ E %#  ' k " ' % E   $ #  E k E h'  j (   dc E #  ' " k   $ w `    "   j ™ "`        ™ b   h c ™ E % $ h E %# ' k $  " '  E   m ™ ' E '      " m z $    h c  b " E a % C$   "  ™ j          $ $  E dc E j  #  ' h $  k E%  bh " E a % (  ' z  &  " m '    b %"  j   $ 'd# a E &    _   $ $ y    j %   $ # ™ "'  E dc E #  ' h by   k " ' d  $  z   dc E #  ' h k $ by j & $ " E a % $ " k% E  'd a  " " %&  E # E E by   k     E C #%  b " E c  E kb ( m "   b % ' d E (  " k% E   %  $ # ` % b " %   $  E " 'd#  ' & ' h h  $`   $ by   k E  $ " % k $ 'd# E %   $ #`  E%   z  " ' d  $ j  `  %  $ #  " %& d E E h (  %  ,  ( ™ $ $ %  $ # ' % %  $ g E C % $ # z 'd E Ca  7 4 1  2    3         / E         #  5    4/  1  2  1/     -+  / 6   4  5  k  E%  $ 'd# k l q : - , m   C b %   $ u u ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( (      & E ' 'd & #     "'  "  'h #       g u b " % E  'd k $  % E C #% '$ k `  $ ' b " h' j C c' E & `  $ (u1 , u2 , . . . , uk ) mi i=1, . . . , k 'h "     "C  "    " ' "    b $  j $ " ( $ $     `     s k = 2t  " ` (   dc E #  ' h h '$   ' m % k'  `  E%   d  ' %  j '    E %#  " E ' h "   : 'd O(kM (b)) O(k 2 M (b)) E a % $   k ( E a c bD %   k h c    $ 'd# b b  $ E%  Cy h u b  m (   E '     E k E h'  j  " d ' E  $ " E a   E'  $ # kb E  k   j   z   E $ % '   C #% $        'h  "     " dc  m E a k   O(M (n)n)    m  $` h "   " ™ " E j " ' C b %  $ u1 = ut−1,1   dc E j   "  " $ `  #`  $ '    C %  ™ ' '  % $ "   Ej E  C  'd E E b    s z    E%  $ 'd#  d b   $ C # ZM ∼ = Z m1 + Z m2 + . . . + Z mk . k  dc E #  ' h '  C     $    u 06u 1 A b '" E "    $  E`  %# " '    j  $ # ¢ 2−n AB mod N h $ "  E  bD E ™ b $  $ $ # A B1 '$  ™  &   m  (u1 , u2 , . . . , uk ) u mod m  % E  h B m  # E (  E "  # j E E  kb "' $ 06N € ‡ ‰‹ ‹ € ‰ € €  ‘ {— – ˆ ; ; ;        ™ ‰ > ‡ {‹  } ™ ™  ; c = 1 u = u1 mod m1 i=1 k−1   † C % $ & m        $ #   E " h c  m m {  ‰ ‘Ž { + " %&     %  $ # h&   c  " $      " "   & E " k % (  $ `  k "  k " $ E k E % E    'd % k l ‘ {} } “‘ ‰‹ ƒ € ˆ — œ ‡  ‹  ~ S   V #  z   $ y  $ Cy h%  k E % E  'd $  $  ' k " % k $ 'd# q1 , q2 , . . . , qk  $  " u E%    j  $ Eb k $ "C   ` i, j = 1, . . . , k.  k ( R E%  $ # &   %# "  % ™ b $ " E a % " % C      ™ €‡ Ž ~ ‡ €‹ di = c−1 mod mi , i  b % E    j   by    $  R 'd#  E  bE   ` " bD m E E  h  % & ' " u  ' C #% "' z h    ™ $  j E # E  = O(k 2 M (b) + kTXEA (b))  '$   E C E a   b$ % " j ci di ui mod M.  "   %d C   ` E $ c " kb b ™ j k E %+  $ # l ‹~ ci = m1 . . . mi−1 mi+1 . . . mk = M/mi , ™ #     j $  "   j # E k E%  j 6= i,  % E E "'   b %   ` TXEA (b) Zmi log mi =b $ # k &h  % b %  '$ s '    (O((k − 1)M (b)) + TXEA (b)) + M (kb) = E O(M (kb) log k + kTXEA (b)) u E%   j  C h  # &h   $ ci di ≡ 0 (mod mj ) $ E  y  %h ™   'd#   m dc E E  i = 1, . . . , k, "  ` C #% ( " E %   & E  m % k l  M  a (   C$   g ' "  "  dc E #  ci di ≡ 1 (mod mi ), 'd# %  E  d h a  k  C dh h %& k E u k h k $  " C #% k E   `    & ' h i=1 k X %   ™ C Ÿ' " E # & % h a u ≡ ui (mod mi ), mi  %      $    %$ ' ` E E u= C k C #% " B    i=1 M = m 1 m2 . . . m k (u1, u2, . . . , uk )  ™  ( E k X C&  h _ % k i = 1, . . . , k  "C  ' " $ C k=2 u c = c · mi d = c−1 mod mi+1 q = d(ui+1 − u) mod mi+1 u = u + qc u i = 1, . . . , k, /     5    4/  1  2  1/  6   4  5   , / /                -+ - ,   f (x) = (x − b) Ž{ ‡ ‹ n−1 X i=0  pn−i−1 x i  E%  # & E k  f (x) + f (b). " $ bi = n−1 X j=0 ai ω ij ,  ™ C  0 6 i 6 n − 1. a = (a0 , a1 , . . . , an−1 ) ai ∈ R F (a) = b = (b0 , b1 , . . . , bn−1 ) ™   €   z b %  "   ™ > ‰ • ‰ ˆ Š € ‰ E n œ ~ €  ‰ ` " E  %  &h  s !   z   b %    b E% ' j     j  %d '   b$ '" b %  $ C  ` h m d c  %  !   * pn−i−1 bxi ‰ (   E  $  h  b % % k h $ u i=0 ‘ Ž €} ‡ †‹ € m {   €  { Œ  d  "  † i=0 ‘ „ $ pn−i−1 bxi  { € k "     b "C * ]   E  '  n−1 X  } € {    ! (  E   n−1 X    ' E  "  !     Ej  v  V  U Z V t V  − "  C "    *  ` E  C " %& d E " j ' $    SZ  '   '  % n 'k * !   h     − €‡ $ u ?  s  $ E%  ' " h   Cy  E%      " m " b pn−i xi  Ž >  ‰ †‰‡ ‰  } $ b "C     $   h%  E E' £   D c  TU ( $ " E X n  k + '  k "   z % ` $ E E # & E k E   p Z   pn−i−1 xi+1 " ‰‹Œ ˆ Š " $  ' $  dj E y $ "` ' k " k% E  'd    % b  % $ (   E (   # "' j # E " $ $ v   i=0 n−1 X '  b ( z  #  & E  j # E    k E%  (      $ a % $ Cy  # ! "  b " %# "  d!m " (  ) z  E%  # $`  & E     i=0 ™   j  $ b " E a % $ Cy '  " m Cy  Cy  b "% C b "    E  a  " a E " % "   g $ $   '      b " E a % k'  ` " m E " j ' $  % $  E  (  ) z        C  E  % ™  &       E # j  E%    $ 'd# pn−i−1 x i ' $ %" j=0 ω 6= 1 ωn = 1 n−1 P ij ω =0 16i f (x) E k   " a E   xn − 1 = xn/2 − 1 xn/2 − ω n/2 .  z E k E%  $ C h c   E%    E # x = ωi x−ω i & E   j  `  E   ¤  2 " ™ # & E  j  † ? F (a)  E' b %   d $ "  ( d E%  f (x) x − ωi 0 6 i 6 n − 1 xn − 1 dc E %E k  ( (  k E " ™ #  E   f (x)     E  '   E%   # & h "   ¢ q   i=0 h " '  " " $ C $ E   E    " $ " ( %    F −1 (F (a)) = a F (F −1 (b)) = b $  " ' $   E  ' k%   E j h'   "  u $ †{ k h ( c  j=0  C #%  j '  '  `  (   " h Cy E bi ω −ij ,  E  E   $  c  d k E%  c  E a h   "  " E "    $ d "  F −1 (b) a h $ ™ = −1 a ™    % k h ™   n−1 X c     E%  h " '  k E' 1 n  $  n/2    " ™ #   " ci = j m  " ‰‡  { —  " # R   l ω ™ E     xn/2 − 1 = xn/4 − 1 xn/4 − ω n/2 ,   xn/2 − ω n/2 = xn/4 − ω n/4 xn/4 − ω 3n/4 . " "  %  '  $ a i xi ™   s     u $ 06i6n−1 "  n = 2k  %a h c h f (x) = n−1 P E x − ωi f (x)  "  $ " F −1 (b) = c a i xi (ai + cai+ n2 )xi . i=0  R  q   ‰ S  n−1 X j=0 M = ω n/2 + 1 0 6= ω ∈ R j=1 k−1 Y ω ij ≡ 0 (mod M ).   (   C  h E  y u C #%  u 16i • ‰ ‰ ˆ Š € ‰  €  { Œ Ž >  ™ † ‡ †€ € “ ‘ ‘ “œ• { Œ { ‡ € “ > ‰ ‡ ‘ „ { †€ † † ˜ ‹ €‡  †‰ ‰  } ω    k k  ˜ €‡  S   ‰  } { ™ ‡ ‰ ‰ “ ‹ S   V =  ‡ †€ € “ M = ω n/2 + 1 n (1 + a2 ). j j=0 a2i . (1 + a2 ), j j    Ej  h    ( #   j      b "' % ' E   j      " b E # " % k '  " w %  $ #  C &  $ b " "  E % E  'd  "C   " E  & m ( $ £  hy " n 'k   % k h  &   ¢ ™ " E % ( d w ™  E   ω=2q 6=1   z     "   B w      $  "b    " E % ( d "C ' %$  "j  h  k & " ™  ™  E  %  m "    ™ "     $ #   E a  b" " 'd E a dc "  % k ™ h %  $ #      m   ( E  " # E    " %  $ #    d  ™ "    $ j   $  d E %# b " m  m 'd E a $ u b %   ( d z  " 'd#  Cy ' " $ "'   $    "  ' % ' " E dc   Ej E C  j  ™    j '  " 'd#  b % ' b " h'    E a k E%  $ 'd#  k% k' " $ a h "          ™ " %  $ # d "  E d E # E & ' E%  # & E d " E     " # ™  % $ g E &h  (    & %   ™ " E " #  h&  s j=k−1−s  h $  j "  " E %   & ' E  n c ™ E  ω ≡1 (mod M ) % E  '  n=2k M =ω n/2 +1=2qn/2 +1 ω n/2 =−1+M ≡−1 (mod M )   s E       % t  $ #  ' h k w % " b" " "   C $ # k−1 E j  "C  b %  B ( $    $  C  j 1 + ω i2 = 1 + ω 2 h ¤  $ &h  n m b# $ ' " #  h m t  E k    % ™ E    j  b C  E'    $ E  " ' i = 2s t     j    E " j $  ' $  % % $ # %dc   b % ' ™  (    b C  E'  " g n m d!m $ ™  j    y ` u  b " k  E   ' E     "  % k '  h c h E h  h'   (   $`    %  $ # by E  " "  E    j     b E% "% a    b C k E'   & %  $ # n m  d m ™ # " ™ " d!m $  $   $  " ™ #  " k " h E c '   " # % d m ! `    j ( $ " ' E %     Cy  t 16i ‰ ‘ ‡ ˜Ž“ ˜ ZM ZM †€ i=0 X ‰ i=0 n 2 −1 Ž a = (1 + a) i     k−1 ›€ C   ( ' " b$ %  i=0 k−1 Y #%   ' E E % g " j  l ‰ ‡ ω = 2q 6= 1 ‹ j=0 k−2 Y ai =  n−1 X  y $      n−1 X  C  h E  E ( E 'h # ' " ¢ n = 2k ω ˜“ ˆ i=0 M ™ a2i = b X ™ ( n 2 −1 "j  a %  h u †€ 2   m   $ E'  n = 2k  hb     %$ ' "  " # a M 2 j 1 + ω i2 ≡ 0 (mod M ). = 1 + (ω n/2 )t ≡ 1 + (−1)t ≡ 0 (mod M ), l _  2   j  j    $    "j  E # " " h ,  % E %$  & ' " b$ % "   " %&  "C  ™ b ( z $  h%   &         3 2           1 4/    - 7+   5    4/   r 1/  ™     $ / 6   4  5  1 " &h '  E -   (  $ y %  h k " k% E  'd  [d1 , d2 , . . . , dn ] = d1 , . . . , dk + Pn Qn Pn =an Pn−1 +Pn−2 Qn =an Qn−1 +Qn−2 Qn = an Qn−1 + Qn−2 > Qn−1 + Qn−2 > 2Qn−2 > 2 n−2 2 †  > ‡ €   z  "   C #%      ‰ { › { } †‰ ˜ k ˆ ˆ  $    C ' " E'  C E # " "C  ' " $ "'   " $ by  k ™     $`     E D E $ " d Ej ' k    m $ h  " d E " C& h _ '     m  h` ' E   d  E % k "   h $  E'     kb " k% $ E  'd E %a h $  C ' " E'   y ( ( % k h % E 'h # E $    g z   C  h E  y E a %  h    ™ " E % E  'd   $  EC h  " b " b E% '"  h%   ¢  ( z " s $ v   &h  ™ &h  "    z $   $ #  " b E% $ "  "' & ' % h%  C  $  E k E ( "b   C  h E  h'  '       %$   "j `  l  C "  u  y   Cy  C #%  b   "   $ ™ (   l $     & %  ' " m C h k l % ' " b$ % " j     E h a ( P0 = 1 Q 0 = 0 n=1 '   C #%  h %            b E% "   E    "  $ $ " k E%  h       E % E  'd b E% "'  Pn−1 , Qn−1 ~€ Œ $ y    1 Xn−1 · Yn−1 " ' dj  $ " %  E a 'd  Xn−1 Yn−1 ‡ d d E n = 1, 2, . . . `  m     ™  E  " #  $  & " b " #   1 Xn−1 = Yn−1 ’ (    j "` "   m  " k  ' "%    $ " ( n ˜ h c k h c h z (  by & %  Cy '  b "  [a2 , . . . , an ] = €› Ž ‹ ™ &   x   h`  E ` j # E m ' C h      $   1 Pn = Qn Ž{ €‡ ‰  } > ‡ ‹{  Pn Qn Ž“ (−1)k Qk Qk−1 a = 1 1  { ˆ (−1)n Qn Qn−1 } 'k " . .  { '  ' ' .   %  ' E   d        1 a ... n 1 ~ †  ‰ ™ ( Pn−1 Qn−1 ‰ ™ $ z    % ( '       Eb "' C % %& E E h' k   1 a ... n 1 ‰ k=1 n P ™ Qn h%   &` E $  y   " " ' b  dj E   $ #  " " n−1 ‰ = $ "` ' (   "  d E E (  " m   % Pn Qn ‘Ž $ '  " $ $  %  hj ™ $  `  % $ m  $ % % $ '   h m 1 ‡ $     [a1 , a2 , . . . , an ] = Ej  h     s z  m  d m !   dc h dc  j  C #% k   m   a2 1 {‹ d     m    $  "  "  ™ #b " 'h  1 a2 1     ™  %  $ # % k %"  h  & & D m ™ z  $  h%  $ ' k "  %# y  j  ˜ “ { } Ž > Ž ‘ ‡ ‹ Ž€ ‘ ƒ ˜ ˜ ‹ ‡ ’ “ { } Ž > ‘ {— € ™ Œ ƒ‘ “ ~ { Ž‡ { “œŒ { ‡ ‰ { Ž‡ †‹ † ˜ ’ ‹ m ‡   € b %  E k E h   a c E % k h %h '    g " %& " ¢  > ‰  ‘ †‡ z  E  ™ #   ˆ     ! ! !            Pn , Qn  = a1 +   l  m  a E &        E    " $  B # ( †‰ „ ( ( " #C h % E '   d  E k   s k h c % h d ' E   d % k l 1  “œ Pn Qn−1 − Pn−1 Qn = (−1)n n = 1, 2, . . . Pn Pn−1 Qn−1 ‰ ' E $  $ E '  ˜ {  ˆ `  m    "j (   E E $ " j 1 €  , 'd %      w      [a1 , a2 , . . . , an ] = ™ } ‡Ž ‘ − † “‘ ‰‹ ¤ ( $  h c  " ' ™  % `  E k E  `  # a1 1 { ˆ € Pn Qn “ Pn Qn ˜‰ ‹|{ (  #  h'   ( $  $ "` '  (  D E "   $    ¢  € { f $   D` E " m   j d  dk+1 ™  1 . [dk+1 , . . . , dn ] ( 1 [d1 , d2 , . . . , dn ] = d1 + ; [d2 , . . . , dn ]   1 ; [d1 , d2 , . . . , dn ] = d1 , d2 , . . . , dn−2 , dn−1 + dn    d1 , d2 , . . . , dn ( dc b E% C " E dc m %y  $ "    d "  ... +  ( m  "   E # " h d3 + ( k = 1, . . . , n − 1 2  & %y £  $ d2 + {‡  % k l n 1  ' " "  # [d1 , d2 , . . . , dk+1 ] A = r−1 , B = r0 , r1 , r2 , . . . , rk rk+1 = 0 ri−2 = di ri−1 + ri i = 1, . . . , k (A, B) = rk d1 , d2 , . . . , dk+1 { $  E'   A = d1 + B B A>B ‹   rk−1 = dk+1 rk A I N N N    L L  L  ML  I   Ž ‘ ‡ ‹ Ž€ ‘ “ € ‰‹ ƒ › >  “œ ‘ ~ ‡ ‘  ‰ ‡ {‹  “œ € ‡Ž ‘ a1 , a2 , . . . , an , . . . n = 1, 2, . . . n = 2, 3, . . .  Xn−2 . Yn−2 Pn 1 Yn−1 a1 Xn−1 + Yn−1 = a1 + = [a1 , a2 , . . . , an ] = a1 + = , Qn [a2 , . . . , an ] Xn−1 Xn−1  Xn−2 . Yn−2 n = 1, 2, . . . n = 1, 2, . . . n = 1, 2, . . . n=2, 3, . . . n = 2, 3, . . . ( hC   " $ { ˆ € “ {‹ }– { „ “’ ˜“ z  ' " "'   $  " b E%  E  E  S   V & %  /  7   1/ 0               -+ ‹ “œ Ž‰‡ ‡– ‹ – > “ € { ƒ ‘  {  (    Ej  h     s (   ™ z       &  $ " E E " E C %  '$  m   $  $ ' "  E'  kb " k% E  'd E  (    E    &h  c k $  " b E% "'  h%  $ dc E E s (  b "C $ u dc   * ak 6= bk " z    $ j   $   k   E%  ' " h  dc E %# ' h k "  " ™ #  u (   j $   k E%  ' " $ h   &  b" " E # E E h b % "b  "j $ $        h   c E C   " (  % $ # d b E% E  k " % k' k  d E " # u m ™ z  m    %  E  %d    b$ h k ' E    d  E k E  # E  m  k m %y "    z j   `  $ # d E E h   b$ " h '  $ " C h m    m h ' E   d   E  E # E "     `      ( % k %" h     & & bD %  E   E h  $ a c E   k " # E  j m m  m h z    '   d  E k  E  " $ $  $  D 'd d    Ej E C  %h '  `  g C " %&  (  % ' " $  b$ % " j   g l       %$ E & $ ™ " % $ # b E% E   ? > †‰  > ‡ ‹ ƒ‘ †‰ > “ { €}  †‰ > “ € • ‹– € „ {  ˆ › Ž  >  €  €}  › > ƒ € { €Œ ˆ  Ž‰ Ž ‹ ‡ ’ ‘ ˜Ž“ ˜ $  k &  Cy   ˆ ‡ ˆ ‹ €  } { ƒ ‘  {  { “‘ ‰‹ ƒ € >  “œ ‘ { ‰ ‘• S   V    j h #  E  ' %  h'  E 'h #   $        z    ™ $ "   % (  $ # d b E% E  k ¢ m  $`  m    d % E  E  %d    h` ' E d   $ "  E` E   # E   E # E k' % ™ k ™  d E " #    %  h    j  E   ' "  $ E'  ` $ m  # E   E # E % h  ( $ E'     $ ™   E % E  'd   z    $  `   E kb " k%    $ E  'd d E %a h " " 'h EC h " % E h ™ b# E  $ m   $ B  # E  C #% ' " ¢ $   c '   % ' " E'  $  m (    Ej  ™ E     $  $ "      E E k " # E  j $  $  % + k C #% ' C m k E  ( z $   $   h ' "     E'  E dc C  "j  E h k " k% E  'd m j     $     $  j  & %  " ' d m C %  " " '  E E " E ™  & " "  "  ' $ ' " # ™ # ( †‰  > ‡ ‹ ƒ‘ †‰ > “ { h †‰ > “ { } B d  a j  ™ ' "  E'  $  E %  $  (  k " ' $ y  dj  `  $     ' "  E'  E k' d " #  `  E  C E ™ z C %   1 an+1 { ƒ € • ‹– €‹Œ „   # '  "   % E # %a h %  a %  h ¢ E    m $  "  h  E k " y   an < an + α1n < an + { { € „ { – ‰‹ ƒ € “‘ › Ž >    € €  ˆ € ˆ > > €}  › > ™    & % E k  $ # & b E% α = [a1 , a2 , . . . , an ] = [b1 , b2 , . . . , bm ]  ˆ { ˜ŒŽ † € ‰ € ƒ ‘   ƒ € € > ak + ε = b k + δ {‡  {   h'  %#   (  u  h  k h c h α ™  €‹Œ „ “œ ‘ { ‰   " '  % z   " b "% C j  (  ) $ " b   & €}  h $  b   " b E% " ` ™         $ b E% "'   h%  ™  k " k% E  'd h a    "  % k _ ™ z    $  $ E " E     & " k " % k' k C  "   %    *& m ( ( z % j   '  h%    $ " b %" C '  C #%  h "   $ # % k h $  $  " " ™ ™ C #%  " %    $   ™ ( ' "  E'  $    ™ ( k k ' " u z f (x) = { „ { ‘ †‰ € ˆ ‘•  h Ca $  $  06δ<1 Ž‰ Ž ™   d E  h &   % $ ` m   m  E% '" k% E   f (x) ?  > ‡    α= ‹ " ™ # C #%      ` '  # c C$ %  h` ' E h%  D f (x)  ƒ‘ ‹ q  06ε<1 ˜  S   V hy E ' h%   $    $ k` 'D  C #%   E%   '$ "C  ' k=1 ‡ ’ ˜Ž“ ‘ ‡ ˆ ‹ €  z  # E ` $ m  C$ #   y  " `  d  'd    & % u " %  $ '  # E   j   $       +  " # $  Cy  E h  Cy %  'E %  dh B ( % $ # b E% '" "` h E m b "C (  ) $ u  k h  d ' E    d  %E $ # m z      b % "    $  $ ' "  E'  kb " k% E  'd E %a h    a %  "  *E f (x) †‰ > “ { €}  $ £ Pn+1 Pn <α< . Qn+1 Qn " † € ‰ € ƒ ˆ E  %  % k h  ' $   $ $ C h& '    n X Pn (−1)k , lim = lim a1 + n→∞ Qn n→∞ Qk Qk−1 %d y Ž ‘  {  ‹ €‡ ‘ ™ h a d  d m C E #  d  $ n   C + ‡ ‹ Ž€ ‘ € Ž‘ } { ‹ €  { %  $ Ej ' k  E  $ m $   n an (αn ) E  Cy b  ˆ ˆ E  # E  d C ™    α E%  ›Ž ~ ‰ {  { “ ‰‹ ƒ  `  " $ $ v   E α = [a1 , a2 , . . . , an ] α 6= [a1 , a2 , . . . , an ] a1 , a2 , . . . , an , . . . [a1 , a2 , . . . , an , . . .] 1 α1 } Pn f (an ) = , Qn   1 f an + = α, αn   Pn+1 1 f an + = . an+1 Qn+1 '" ˜ ‹ €‡ €    h   E E h k E "  α1 a1 , a2 , . . . , an , . . . , α = [a1 , a2 , . . . , an , αn ] n = 1, 2, . . . {α} = 0 α = a1 + †‰  ‰ “ ‰ ˜ “ { } Ž — ‘ ‘  ‰ α $ "` h  $ $ v   Pn Pn+1 <α< Qn Qn+1  " ' =  a1 , a2 , . . . , an , . . . n+1 “ ‹ $ " b E% h k a1 = bαc  ( > { ™ ‡ ‰ „  S  n = 1, 2, . . . ™ # " E 'h  £ f (x) = [a1 , a2 , . . . , an−1 , x] # – ˆ ˆ  ˆ { € { E Pn Qn ( " b$  ˜  [a1 , a2 , . . . , an ] = % " j l " n   › { } α = bαc + {α} {α} 6= 0 α xPn−1 + Pn−2 . xQn−1 + Qn−2 P1 P3 P4 P2 < <...6α 6...< < . Q1 Q3 Q4 Q2 (ak + ε)Pk−1 + Pk−2 (bk + δ)Pk−1 + Pk−2 = . (ak + ε)Qk−1 + Qk−2 (bk + δ)Qk−1 + Qk−2  z "    $ B  $ $        1 1        m  C E  % k h` h c   /    1/ 0               h k /  -+ - c h ' "` ' D 'd dc E E h'    C %  dc b E% '"  $ "` h   E%  ' " $    $  h   ' b  "  $ $ v q       E   ™ # bD % m m ` ™  $  z j  ` a   " B % '   $` b " h  ' 'd    $  ` z     hj k E ' E $ % z   j E   $  # hj % b " EC E  j   a  ™  z $ 'd dc E # " h' '   "` ' $     E ' E  '$    ? {  €‡ ƒ „ † † † ‰ { Ž‡ { €‡ ƒ Ž > > ƒ ‰ ‡ ‘ ˆ Ž ‘ Œ €‡ ˆ ~ ™ —  { } ‡ †€ € “ Ž >  ‰ †‰‡ ‰  – (  ' "  } dc  'd# € ˆ E # " h'  'dc % C E ™  h k   $  j     #   j    m " C h m ϕ(Zp ) dc  `  Cy '  'dc     % (  $ ‘ {— € ™ Œ ƒ‘ $ E ' "  ( b %  d  C & ' E  " %      `     ™  E E 'h # k '$  m £ z  # dc b E% '"   $ "` "b       E a "  $   $  " ' %$     "j  h % k l m ™ z & k  $ " % k' k z  b "% C ϕ : x 7→ x2 b  # $ z B  E C #j   ˆ = a z  # c  m h   E ( z    $    " b E% "' h%  $ 'dc  ? ™ ` B  m   h dc ' †‰ ‘ €‡ ƒ Ž > †‰ > ƒ ‰ ‡ z   j   b % "   # ' h  '  %$ "b   j (  m "j  h  "  “ € ‰‹ ƒ ‰ ˆ Š €  ,  ˜ €‡  “‘ ‰‹ ƒ €‹ ‰ Ž ‘ ‡ {‹ ‘ ’ ˜ ‘ ˆ Ž ‘ Œ ‹ ‡ ˜Ž“ ˜ ‘ Ž‰ { “ { } { Ž  {    (    Ej  h     s % (  $ # d b E% E   $ $     (  ' " 'd# dc E # " h'  ' "` '  D`  $ "   " " £ $ $   ' E   d   E 'h ' % $ # k E%  ' " h   " E # j E E hC %  '$  $ %  $ # " ' ` (    $   '  " 'd#  b %  d " E % b "'   $  " E a z  $ $    $ # d b E% '" $ $  "  "   "  ' $ "` ' $ "` h k " % k' k  d E " #  d % E  E  %d    m $    ™ %  $ # E % $ # k E%  h   C  "   p E% (  hj "  " 'd# ( d m # ™ " E 'h    ‡ †€ € ‰ “ ‹ ¤ E z  E%  " k E a % j  a %        " a  ™ j  $ j   ' E   d        %y C h   " 'd# d E # " h' b d m " E ` E` E  # E  ` m $ m  %y  E # E " ™ #b " " k " $ " £  $  b % " k   " % k h     D  " ™ $   E% '"  $ $  %  $ # & %  ' "` ' " "C  %  b " d m “’ †~{ { †} { ƒ Ž > h%  † > ƒ ‰ ‡ ˆ ‘ ˆ Ž ‘ €‡  Œ "` h $ k (   E%   j & b E% '    k &   E%  ' " d  $ h  b b  $ " E j # E E £ h h  E # & % E k $  " '  i  dj  h    m E  j z  h` ' E     d  E 'h ' % h  ™ # (     "`  a E a $ ` &    %   u d E " # ' “ ~ †‹ “ { ‡ ( z $ m  y h  ' "       d C E "  E %# y  j B   m ™ E   $   E ' E % $ (      %  $ #    b$ " h ' $ E %a h %  d "  `   b "C $ u  <    %   $ # %   $ # ¡ ! a x2 ≡ a (mod p) k $  " ' dj E  !   $  "  E " # ( % * E         ™ "   E a %   m    k $ "     ( h & '  C " c E D %  $   33   %     E E h    $ "b %$ { ™ ' ™   B h   d b E%    $ #%    d  E '  "` 8  C $ # ( ™  $ $  $  $    j     j   " d " *k b   '$ d " ' " # k% " # d E  ' $ %   h  kb "% k  h  " C ` ` ` h m d % w   j    u    %  % j ' ' E (  ) k b c%  " C %  '$ `  m   h` ' E    d  E  E # E "  % (  $ # d b E% E  £ £ A ™ b " '   j   $    "%  z k  k $    " % k'  m   h` ' E   d   E` E   # E   E  '   ' % $ $ "  E "   h       $ ` $ 4 ,¥ 5  u   ' ' b  E%  h  ( & z j   # E    ™ " k ( z    `            .     d E # " a %   ` ' ¢  E ' b % "  E h'   %  m d m    ( z ™ $     $ h    j  ' '    E # %  d m k  E%    &  E %  E' " " k "  E   % ™ " $  $    #  b E% E   E    g  {  % >  > “ € • ‹ " E k %" h dc "  $   (  (  ™  E "  y  "%  (  C " c E D %  $ &     $  d E  ` $` ' $ E h & d " d h a    $ E " % $ ™ # c "  ™ ` * ‘  ‰ ‹ €‡  " ™ # " ˜ ˜Ž“ †‰  > ‡ ‹ ƒ‘ †‰ > “  ‰ „ †‰ ˜ –  ˆ { { Ž   €  { $  ? “ ‰‹ ƒ € {  “œ ‘ €}  €} ' " l { ‰ • % (  b$ % " j   j E h&   E    m  h` ' E   d  E k  E  " $ $  $  D 'd " $ d E # 100   $ "'   " E "'   d E # "  ' S # k " % k'  Ž‡ { ˜“ z  dc ' z" k    m h d E    kb   $  $    p a # E a % b$ "   E D ` h'   (  WS  U k  "j  l  b " ( m ' E    d  E " k ™ # "'  ™ dc E " # ' $  h 97  E  "  $ %" " ™ #   y    b % C “œŒ { ‡ z % $  h      E a %   θ " %& E  $ 'd#  " E % h " % k 'dh * V q $`    E b % "     m  d b    $ "  "  $ $  Zp Ker ϕ = {−1, 1} 33 $ $  $ a    $ #     E      h d ' E E% E   ' dj  C dc % E   % h 8 k k  #  "   ™  dc E E E d# m   h    d E # " h'  $  d    D C #%    " & ™ % h p "C  $  $ &   h % ' <     E ' E C dc E " h'   k k c y  Z∗p = {1, θ, θ2 , . . . , θp−2 } a = θj j " %   ` ' z" '  $  z  `  E D % k' E  $   " u dc {1, 2, . . . , p − 1}  k' " %& d  ™ k " " # m "  E%  h  $  m  &  d b E% ™ %k   #  E % $  %  E 400 "` k`  E   (  E D  & % k' k  % k'  $ $   " h  a   %   $ # h    d $ E a mod p  E  h k   & " E $ %  k l " % k' ( ™ k E'    $  & b h dc ' E ( E   '" $ "` ' " $ a d E # (  $ 4 D D       $   b h k  # h   d   j &  " E   (  h E "   $ 8 365 33 k   E a % $ # ` $    " b E% " %a h  bE ' k $ Cy  ( ™ "  k  E a E k " ™ #    E z  "'  " $    j ™  E " ' $  E  $ p−1 h  $   # hj h E a ™ b       "C  ' " $  "'  " C$ % $  w   r       %d y E  p a c E %   ` h E%  d ' E "      m h  k h C# "  (  " E £ % Zp k h   $  `    E %  c h 'd   (  )  " " " $ k   k '  d " ' " # h a %   #` d   ` ™ C " $ % k  $  E α (  '   h a     "  d E k=1 " z  " hb  d ' 8 . 33  w  dj E E'  $  n X (−1)k a1 + , Qk Qk−1 %& k $   $ " %# " b %  "  h E%  ¡ E    " *" 365 " h&  `     j ™ %   7 , 29 " 8 365 33 ( (  m 365  $ ` ( E h ( & 5  E a % u 1 365 , 4  E    `¢ `  " Pn lim = lim n→∞ Qn n→∞    &  'd d ' d E E h'  365,  ( $  E  ' $  ' 365 41  & E E " m 97 365 400 ™ # * h & 365,24220 . . . [365, 4, 7, 1, 3, . . .] α Zp 2y ≡ j (mod p − 1)        1 1      /  ,   1        1  -+ 4 -   $ E k %" h  $    "b    & ' " '  %$  "j ™ 1 1 (st − s − t + 1) = (s − 1)(t − 1), 2 2 8   ( '  (   "      p G = (G G = p p−1 2 ) G=8 2 X 7 j=0 f (j)ω j G2 =4(ω 2 −2ω 4 +ω 6 )=86= 0 (mod 2) p−1 2 p = 7 X j=0 f (j)ω pj ,     8 2 G= G= G. p p z  $`  ™  b E%  ' "  $  E'  C E  %  dc E " # E k h d % ' " C E C %  '$   & % z %  'd  t  "'   "  u s " E h%  Gp _ $  ™ z 'd#  b %  c "     E   % E Cy E E   y hj  C      E    b "'  "  $     `   E $   a  E  C " h   k " % k' k e % ™ " z  $ #     s ™ ™ % "  $   u &h   y $ (  '  u (   %  ` ` w & %     ™  n      "` % E %$  &   k h  ( ( j    b E   '$ " &  ' $ " '  z C  E   " $ $ v  $  E 'h # ' "     E'   ™         " y  E % d ' E  "   b "j k' h ™ E   E  k h  ( ` ` e ™ ? { ™ ‡ ‰ “ ‹ , = ( '       $   $   $ " E % k " a h &h ' %  E E 'h C  "      $   $   E ' E ' % h'   d % " C E C %  $ B %  m & % $   u  j  '"  "  $   ' "  E'  E E bh    $ $   a E ™ " %  l   d " E %     s " ' ( % "   k       $  b$    E  D h E a % '  ' (  m $ $  "` ' d ' E $ E  h'   z  %y ' " a % {1, −1} h ™ $ ' " E'    ( ' $ , x ≡ 1 (mod 2), x ≡ 0 (mod 2). (p2 −1)  8 ™  ( ap b ) = ( pb ) j=0 7 X E ( $ f (st) = f (s)f (t) G ∈ GF (p2 ) %# 2 x2 −1 8 ' G=  m Ri   G 6= 0 (−1) 0,  ( %# ' % k " "   f (x) = (  $     h  £ k E d E # " h' ( " ` " b$ %   " ¤ Zp $ Ck ' bh $ £ hy " " ™ # ` $  ™  " 'd# ' % C (p2 − 1)  %  a  u   (   k ™ "   C h  " E E " j   GF (p2 ) p ≡ 1 (mod 8)  " " ω 4 =−1 G 6= 0 GF (p2 )  +  'k " $ $ h%   C #%  " % k' k  E " b  ` ™  "  l ( (  ( ( 2p ) = (−1) C ( # h u $  € ˜‰  d  %  " E  % d ' E  "  2 d  d E ( % $ # " ™ #C  " b E% Z8 E " $`  (mod 2)  ' " Ž  ‘ ‹ ‹ ‡ ’ k ( ap ) = −1  C& $  ˜ ˜ E 'h $   $ " '   $  " E # A  $ p−1 ≡ 0 (mod p − 1). 2  h _  j E'   "   k   $ y a b ( ab p ) = ( p )( p ) a = θj ( (s − 1)(s + 1)  “ { } Ž # k " % k'  & % E  a h& " 'd t  Cy s > ?  (  ' E      % (mod p) a ≡ 0 (mod p) '   k $ $ h%  ‰ “ k "C  'k ( (  E h%  ≡ ±1 (mod p) Zp  h  € ‰‹ ƒ m $ $ "` ' '  h  Cy ( ™ "  " * ( ap1 ) ≡ ( ap ) p−1 2 % k l  E ' E ?   $ h%  w j  $ ™ › p−1 2 ( ¤   ≡ 1 (mod p) ⇐⇒ j ( % $ & ' > " { ™ ‡ ( ' "  g ( ap ) ≡ a %  (st)2 −1 8    E &  ™ ‰ “ =  "` f p−1 2 # E    D` b E% ‹ ( $ a1 ≡ a (mod p) $  €‡ ƒ €  › „ > ’“ ˜“ z S h % k l ( 1p ) = 1 ( −1 p ) = (−1) #    $ $ u a " ' ≡ # t2 −1 8 st−1 2 " & % (a, p) = 1 ™ #b ™ ≡ "  " & % t−1 2 " b$ m  'd# ( ap ) = 1 " $ & % ( ' p−1 2 " % +  ' ( 2 a ap−1 ≡ 1 (mod p) θ  " l s2 −1 8  " j    + j   #`  $ '   $ a    ' &h s ≡ 1 (mod 8) s−1 2 2 h E k E ' E   $      $    ( %  $ # E " # "  " a  " & "   "  #`  $ '  '  a ≡ 0 (mod p),     0, a ∃ x, x2 ≡ a (mod p), a mod p 6= 0, = 1,  p  −1, 6 ∃ x, x2 ≡ a (mod p), a mod p 6= 0. 1 2 2 1 (s t − s2 − t2 + 1) = (s2 − 1)(t2 − 1), 8 8 p2 −1 8  ω f (j)ω j . G = ω − ω 3 − ω 5 + ω 7 = 2(ω − ω 3 ), +    j   m '  d E E h'  ' z  $  $ E   $   $  j ' "  E'   "   " 'd  E ' E  b "    Cy h%  k " % k h  ™ " ™  ` 4 , 5 ¢ ‘ ˆ  ‘ € “ Ž{ ‰ ( & e ™ †        1 1      /     1        1  -+ 4 -   k=1 q−1   X k q $  j=0 q−1 q−1 = (+1) + (−1) = 0. 2 2  4) a = pa1 1 pa2 2 . . . pakk    a1  a2  ak p2 a pk p1 ... ; = p p p p ; a  ; b %  −1 p  %  E %  " a E  & %   & m j   E # z ™ E $ 'd# " z " C #% % y j     k k '  h E      $     C %#  h E a % '  '           $  "` $ $ (        $ $ Ck ' bh  " " ™   hy $ £ m   ™   b E% "' h%  ™ $ C E %# E h ' _ (  %  ' z "    $`  GF (pm ) Gp " a E $ # E $  a  $ k E%       k G  dc h a  ' C kj b p−1 q−1 2 2 E h'  j $ " " % k   (  E  G ≡ (−1)     a mod p   %y    Ej a 'd # h u $ " G 6= 0 ' y  p E % '   p−1 2    & E  h q E 'dh +  $  p−1 q−1 2 2  ™ " " '  i ™  d  5 ,  E "%  4 , 4 ( z ( & ' " d ` ef , 5  w w         $ d E # " h'  '      dj ™ E h E a % '  '  z ]   j   E  h a  l   TS T S TX V  S  *  V S  p  Z X S (  S * 8 < ( $      b   "j  bh %$ ' "  " ( ' " E'     C  m m ™       E k   k      $ E a 'd k'  ' E    ™ b   s m C #%     C #%     ( h'  j   j   # %  $  d E z h' '   E " %   d m E  $ h % ( & z  d m ! '  #  (  ) $ $  "` ' b   = % ` a   m pj  " %&   ω ' b E%  $ "`    s (  $`  G = (−1) "  $ " &  ' $ q   a E $ " &    q−1   X p pj q ω ja a  %   k'  ' E " C&  h _ Ž{ ‰ Ž€ “ ˆ ' "b %$    j  "b %$     "j  h % $ " E  j '    j=0 q−1 X   "  a  "  E " z    "j  h dc E %# b  %$  ‘ } (  ) a %  E  '  u E% " " f (pj)ω pj = f (p)G.  E   ( '  # E   Gp = h % d E j=0 $   G = Cy  p #  E    ω . j q  p−1 2 c %  Ej "  ™ b  y  q−1 2 $ m $  E'    C  E h E # ‹ ‰ “ € ‰‹ ƒ ›  > €‡ ƒ €  $ "    h  E & B    E  (  # −1 q   & %y  l  = < %   & % E by G = (−1) h%  $    z  $ " % E    › > ‡ {‹  } E  j '   $ (  $  C$ G2 6= 0 ' $ #  % k hb  by    "  E  D  $ `  C " $ u  p #  &  s   C      u  ' › „ > “’ E j   & E #  j % G =    k % $ , m  E ' E   k h   "  h ( ' ( " b$ % ˜“ z S  r 2 d  E  j ¤ "% k $ k=0 p h%  $  k=1 & & ( C c $ " E $ "` ' $      p−1 q−1 p q 2 2 = (−1) . q p f   $  $ % k " q $ C #%  m  k " k% E     $   &    V ( G C $`   C %   'd    a h   ω q '   h  C E %# ' ™ " b " ' E  Ž{ ‡ ‹ Ž€ p  ™ E `  " ™ h%  " j  l    (  $  $   C  i E  ' $ "` ' C kj b %  E " # E    " " ™ # k' d " C # ™  E  C #%          ¢ f (x)  $ k=0 ' ' m k=1   E  "  a %   $ C '  " j=0 7 X  h Ri   q−1   X j q a ( j=0  bE " j E    $ $ v  &  % k  "b  %$ ‘ f (p)f (pj)ω pj = f (p) ™ h  $`  E " ™ #  ( E a ™   m=q−1 E C    a  G=  h E ' " ' k a   _ Zp $` k =0 ™ "  h %  # E pq−1 ≡ 1 (mod q) E   "j j=0 7 X   j  k jk X  X  q−1 X q−1   X q−1 q−1   j k jk −1 −1 j(1−k) ω = ω j(1−k) . q q q q q j=1 j=1      Gp = C  E E     s G 6= 0         q−1 q−1    X q−1 q−1 X j −k −1 X X j k j −k = ω ω ω j−k . G= q q q q q j=0 j=0 ( 0q ) '    ' E £ h GF (pm ) " E G=  '     b   s E a 'd p 0, a 6= 0, q, a = 0,   X   q−1   X q−1 q−1 −1 k 1 j(1−k) ω = q = (−1) 2 q. q j=0 q q k=1   q G (mod p). p p X X q−1   q−1   j j ωj = ω pj , q q j=0 j=0   X   q−1  pj p p pj ω = G. = q j=0 q q ( ap ) p        1 1      /     1        1  -+ 4 -  ( 2 ( n1 ) = 1, ( n2 ) = (−1) ( −1 n ) = (−1) n2 −1 8 t ( n2 ) ™ b % ; ; ( −1 n ) a n t a = 2 a1  z C h%     j   & %y m $   ' "  E'            &h  $ $ y   $   C #%       m  % '  ' "` '   E%  s z   $ j $   j  $ b# "'  " m m     "  h c E " kb '"  z $ b % C " E     "     j           E `  m a % b " &   $  $   $       E % E  'd &   " ™ # " j ' k '$ d E C h E k " % k' k  m    j   % '  k $ y   j   $  $  % "  a E d "  E k E a %  Cy h%  "   %  $ #   $ E%  $ 'd# h " D 'd d E E a % V U * V ` :< i       " ™ #   a %  h ( %y C E d ' E '  “ € ‰‹ ƒ ›  > €‡ ƒ €  ‰ › „ > “’ ˜“ z ( ( ‘ } ‹ z  '   Ž{ ‡ ‹ Ž€ ‘ Ž{ ‰ “ ˆ ™  S   V   h  c E % $    j    k $  ' ' ™  Ž€    " ™ #b " " $ # E # "  u  " ' " l " $  (  b$ % " j   $ l  $   m    $  E'   " # C #% ' E  " ™     (m, n) = 1 E  % k h ' % j $ "    y $ c '   i by   " %  h'   qi    k ' j   a b k  s Y Y pj j i % $ k  ( ap ) " a  k   m n−1 m−1 2 2 # k $  m &    i=1 j=1 E h'  E%  E  $ $ "   $     k h E ¢ m n   q−1 n 2 . m j  $   = (−1) h   d E  pj −1 q −1 i 2 2   h  j ' =   " % k  % & % '  '   ;     a   'h E ™ E   pj −1 q −1 bi i 2 2 %  a % ' C  dj   h n m k  a mod n  & % %  $   "      z d , ' %  E “ Ž{ ‰   $ "  E  E ™ E h      $    d m " %  m−1 2 $ 'dh  ( = (−1) *$ "   j † j  a %  E a % '   m m ( " h m = q1b1 q2b2 . . . qsbs ,     C %    ‹ pj &  $  C E # "  %  m   Cy h%  $ a b s  k Y Y qi j i  ' ' (−1)aj ™ "  m '$   = (−1) 'd#  b E% & $ "` " ™ #b " h'  $ # & %   & %y % k h  &h  s  " E     $ #  ™ " % a k' $  %y p    qi pj   $  ( "  E %$  & _  ( j=1 i=1 E " ' d   Ej i=1 j=1 k s Y Y  E   &  j  $ "  m  m n " $  j # b E E Ej  k " $ " £  ™ #  j  E b E%   "j k   ak    a1  a2 a a a a ... . = n p1 p3 pk " E  E "    ¢ $ E ' ' ' "    " $  $ a    # h  ( "% k  l  h  $  E'     (  m ) c  = E  (  # E @  z ™   ' " k E " # =  "  n=p a % " $ 'd# &   s `     2 2 = = (−1)(−1) = 1, 3 5 % $ %& %     $  E'   $  " % k E b $ u  ™   $ #  & ™ <     (   %y C h   " 'd#     $ %  "C m n % E " #   %   " 'd# d E   $ C #%  h  " a dc E n ™ $ a (a1 , 2) = 1 # n−1 2 % u & $     $ d E # " h'  k " % 'k  ‰ „ {   ( anb ) = ( nb ) m ™ 2  y a b E%   $ # " h'  k " % k' k  E E h B  a '  $    kb "  $   ™ E E 'h # k % n    &    E " h   $  = (−1)2 (−1)3 = −1.  " $ " ' "` $   E m  $ ™ % $   % −2 5 '  $ ' $      C % '   C   " u #   =    b E% " #  (  ' " ( %y   # "   k    E C & C c' h "   C  E 53 5 k   $ "      "%  ' C h E " ™ # '" $ ≡ ( na ) ? #      $  k " " (  h E a % '   " ™ # '  %# y Œ , 5 m &      $ (  ) " E  j   ' E j   & E # " h'   E  b D %   l  a  $  E  " m m     ;  $ " E  j  ' E j d E # " h'  k E   ( ` $   k E E a  C ' "  % k " $  a E $ & E " # E & h a  % k h  j   E # E d E " # E ( ( ( z & j      # ' b E% " k " $ b$ " % E  'd k $ " & % h  c   d % ¤ 4 ; % k  $ 'd# ™  E " # E  % $ 2 & i (  $      $ $   '    by   k " h'  ' $ "` ' c " ' %$ "b  "j  l  & % & % ( p2 ) E % { ( an1 ) ' ( na )( nb ) ( na ) = 1  $ =  $ "` # " # n = pa1 1 pa2 2 . . . pakk = (−1) 26·2 %  , , a1 ≡ a (mod n)  & & & j (a, n) = 1  5 53 ¤ ™ ‡ ‰ “ ‹ 2 15 2  ? = 2 ( (  2 53 { ¤ ( ab n) a =  $ = ( E h n  f f 15 20 53 pi  ‰ “ ‹ C h =  ( ™ ‡ ( E   a1 h&   j 126 53 ai ( ( ' $  p1 = 2 n = pa1 1 pa2 2 . . . pakk . . pj . qi  .         1 1      /   7  1        1  -+ 4 -  4 ,  E C  "b '  %$  "j  %   j  " ™ #  op (n!) = tp (n)  X j=1   n . pj " # h   $ Ž ›€ ‹ ˜“ ˆ { ƒ‡   u    C #%  D C #%     ™ $  C$  `   C E  z    C %   $  #` ' E z "   $    & E k% '  h%  $   $ E (  j   ' "  $ E'    E  l $ B  & E 'h # C %  ' " b$ % "   z    $ b % % '   dj 'd &h ' %  $ # dc $ "    E%  B m "!    !  "!!     !   !  ! !        ˜ ˜ Ž{ ‡ ‹ Ž€ ‘ €  ‹ €‡ “ { Ž } > €› Ž ‹   ‰ S       `    ( ' D   d m  C E  Cy ' dj E  y z "b  $      m C E  b '"   E    E C h ' " E'  E dc E E h ' %$    "j  h %  k l ™      , m ( (    j    k $  ' '  & ™   h c E % $ ™ ˜ €› Ž ‹ ˜“ ˆ ‰  ‡ ’Ž ~ ‡ €‹ ~ S   V  ˆ  ˜ Ž ‘ ‡ ‹ Ž€ ‘ €  ‹ ‡ ’ “ { } Ž > ™ > { ƒ‡ € ‰ ‘Œ ‡ ‰ €   ˜{ ‡ {‹ } Ž€ c2 C E ™ € { ‘Œ   2m−1 < x < 2m %# k E ‡ ( E '   hy    E "%  ™ #% "     "  j  " h E d "  # g   $   $ h      > c1 x>2 x x c1 < π(x) < c2 . ln x ln x ' j c>0 Cy  tp (n) = blogp nc # E  % $ £ z %  a ™  ( '  B   p6x X B m € ‰ q " dc " $  % h    %dc      ? € ƒ ‘  €‡ Ž ~ ‡ €‹ ~ ( & ¥ e B ,2  % ( $ # " h E a   ( & e e¥ , B y 22n >  B Ž{  % k h    $  by     h  by $ " E # "`    ` ` θ(x) = "  ‡ ‹ Ž€ ‘ €  S   ™ E '   ( E E "  j  $ E  $   x>2 h'  ' " ˜ ‹ €‡  j m m   E   % k Ch % C     h'     $ ( " E < c1 < 1 c 2 > 1 ( (  j b$ % "  ˜ “   %  %    x = 2m   l { } Ž > ™ " E x x < π(x) < 1,106 . ln x ln x " %   #  $  j   $      bD % % '     532 −1 53 = (−1) 8 (−1)26·7 = 15     2 8 =− = −(−1)28 = −1. =− 15 15   _ dt x ∼ ln t ln x E z  "  %  " E h E a % C E  C    ' (  ) 2  n ; a1 C   & E $ %    `  h E Cy h%  % C  104 < x < 106 #%    l  x ln x % ( C E    k  %$  C #%  m k " C k x d m   j ' $   j E # E d   E C E  " " E  π(x)  h π(x) k     E E C$ $ u   '  #  j '  "  % $ $ v  ¢   C E  " z    $    $ # D n−1 a1 −1 2 2 " ™ #   by   " £ " " a % E 5 1  l     u $ j  " E          ' E d m " ( ' ( ( j    b "% C " E   j d E # " h'   k E    & ( an1 ) 0< ln p, θ(x) < (4 ln 2)x.  p<2n Y 2n > p n n

θ(2n) − θ(n). θ(2m ) 6 2 ln 2(1 + 2 + . . . + 2m−1 ) < (2 ln 2)2m , θ(x) 6 θ(2m ) < (2 ln 2)2m = (4 ln 2)2m−1 < (4 ln 2)x.  θ(x) > cx x>2 tp (n) = max{k > 0 : pk 6 n}, op (n) = max{k > 0 : pk | n}.       1 1      /               - ,+ 1 -    ,          ' $ "  E'    i Ej  (   E k k E a   C #%  ¤   d % by    (   Ej      h 8    E   k E   'h  #  j E' b %   $ ' $  0 6 b2xc −  hy $ £ θ(x) x >c . ln x ln x π(x) >   ‘ ‡ ‰› “œ { „ { ƒ { ? ‡ ‘ ‡ {‹ ˆ €› Ž ‹ ‰  } { ƒ‡ Ž ‘ ‡ ‹ Ž€ ‘ €  ˜ ‹ ‡ ’ “ ™   z  d      " ' % C   C  #%   ' " $ E'     E  ' % z pn >    E   ' %   1 1 n ln pn > n ln n = c3 n ln n.  c2 c2 ( " E  } c5 ln n < pn+1 − pn < c6 ln n.  › >  { ‡{ € Œ  ‰  } ‘ {— Ž ‘ ‹ ‘  Ž ? ‡ { “ ‰‹ Ž€ ƒ € { € ‡ ‹{  > ‰  € ˆ n “ ˆ } ‘ ‡ ~ œ ‹ › ‘ ‡  ‘ ‡ ‹ { √ 2θ(x) √ x x + x < 8 ln 2 + x < c2 ln x ln x ln x c2 > 1  $ " E `     "  E   π(x) 6 Œ   * TX (  U ‹    C #%   d %  " C # ™ $ b E%   "' h%  q  pn 0 < c 5 < c6 Ž€ , _ √ p> x √ √ √ √ x(π(x) − π( x)) > ln x(π(x) − x). ™    (    s 1 2 n ln pn < n ln n = c4 n ln n. c1 c1 pn > n   E   k k E a  ln p > ln h'   " ¢ p     C    $ c bD %   E # "  $ " h       "     C  #% Ri    pn < (   k k  E c E  B ( d  m n 1 ln pn < ln pn + ln c1 − ln ln pn , 2 c1 > 0.      ™   E      " ' $ " b %  j "   k  (   ( x−1 > c1 x, 2 l θ(x) > θ(2n) > cn > c  2n < x 6 2n + 1 ¢  "  E " $ E    k  "  E c>0 √ 2n ln 2n > cn, * &h  θ(2n) > n ln 2 −  !  &    E   k k E c   B pn pn < n < c2 . ln pn ln pn ln pn + ln c1 − ln ln pn < ln n, ' $ " E'   p> 2n    p<2n X ln 2n ln p 6 1 ln p 6 θ(2n). ln p √ E " √ p> 2n   "  'd " hy $ £ Σ2 =    'h c1 p6 2n p<2n X x = pn ( ' " b$  % " j   X ln 2n √ ln p 6 2n ln 2n, ln p √ Σ1 6 m c3 n ln n < pn < c4 n ln n. blogp 2nc ln p = Σ1 + Σ2, l p<2n  p<2n u X tp (2n) ln p = " X n ln 2 < " b  E%  '" h%  ˜ { } Ž > _ ™ > ‡  ‘ ‡ ‹ { €Œ ‰ Œ   ˜ ‹ – ‡ ˆ ~ ‘  ‘ {— { “ ‰‹ ƒ € { ‡ {‹  } ˆ ( %  $ # & " $ €   œ ‡ z& d E  ~  * TX (  U n pn n 0 < c 3 < c4 ‹  %#    n '   E  k " y     Y op 2n Y 2n n+1n+2 2n n ... = = 2 < p 6 ptp (2n) . n 1 2 n p<2n p<2n $  z C #%  d    " D 'd  `   E Ej    hj  'k " $ h%  $ ' " $ #   B  ( " "  E'     E E  h%  $ − 2bxc 6 1  6 tp (2n).  2n n −2 j j p p  B j=1 j=1  ln p 6 π(x) ln x p6x > X  X θ(x) = $ j=1 tp (2n)  =  ¢      tpX   (2n)  tp (n) X n (2n)! 2n 2n = −2 = = op n (n!)2 pj pj  s   - ,+ 1 /       1  1      c $ op '    C  " u p < 2n E * % $ g  ‘ ‘ }  ( $   E' y  E  C   " Zn  ¢ u z %y %   k l b % "' h%  ™ $ m b & ™ ‰’   $ %  $ # dc $ "  ' h  ( (   $  E'  E % k %h  $ # dc ` (  k " ™ c u   d    bD   E  E h'  C #%    ™     E'   y  E $ ¢ ™ +  > ‡ € “ Ž ‘ Ž‰ Œ ˜Ž‰ { “ ‹ ~€ ‰ * ’ ˆ ~€ “  ( > ‡ {‹  {    $   $   "  ' h   ' E  $ $  " &h % $  {} ˆ Ž € ‹ }  k " % k †}  $ #    & E E  # E  $ m C E ™ $ "C  ' " $ C " #  " ‰’ Ž ‘ {  {‹  z ™ ™ % $ , g & % ( ' "   %  $ 2 ( kŸ E'   " $   $    k %  $ # " # k " ' & "  E ' E k " k% E  ' n z   j   " b" $    $   $    "'   "  ™ " E % E  'd E  E ' E % z E    a ; Ÿ ' E   " $ $ * E     j   $ $ y       ™ E d   $  $   d b E%    k " ' d " m   ™   f $ ' % C d E %  " c h%  $  y     $ '# " ™ % z   a E kŸ E'  & " %   m $ ¤ k  $  , % ;& k E ' E  b$ $   "'   " ™ " k " k% "  E 'd  %  E   E % E  'd  '  & & & &  ™ E " j  ' $  E "'  "  ™ " E % E  'd  E ' E  $ d 'd ' E  "  $ y   b  $    E # k " k% " '  $   E      Cy  Cy  S T V ) U ]   h%  m w  X   'd    B  dc %$ ' % C  & E ™ C ( 5 ¥5 q    $ *   % k h k " j  $ Cy b %  k '    $    ™ ' % C %h   $   $       s k h   E E  $ # & E E  hj d " " ( %  g ' " %&  by   ; ; Ÿ ' E " $ $  $   $ " # k '   $   k "   'E  '   m m % k h k       E m C h E E    " D    $    % ' " E  %    j  $ # E C #%  `  m 'd , z    j    $ $  ‡  E  C  C "   + {‡ & > E  $ d  E "  (  ) "  Cy h%  b$ " a % h  E a C  $ y  $   "  E   $ "  k " % k' k % h ‹ C h m  $  $ # # (    % E ' " E E k  E  ` 'D    $ "  hj ' % $ # dc "  ' " $ a E b "  " " % k '  h " d E  E l ™ E% {1, 2, . . . , n − 1} (a, n) = 1 5 4 , € Ž  ‘ ‹ €‡ Ž{ ˜ €‡ $   $  "  ' h  dc b E%  E ‹ ( b %$ ( & ,       ™ " " D 'd  ` u u ™   d E E " ' C b %      $   $     C %  $ # & E h % k d m ! h    ™ " % ' " E '  Ž€ {  } ‡ €‹ ‡–  > ‡ {‹  ‡ ˜{   ' E  " $ $ (  * m " m    n h%  _ g { {— „ “’ ˜“ z l  B a (a, n) n (a, n) = (2, 341) 431=11·31 `  v $   S  ( B  n ' "  z E ; € { ‡ ‹{  }  Cy  (      %  $   $ $    k " c E % E  'd E ,  E ' E % " ™ # "C  h%  d    "`   "j $  $ # k 'D  $ " i & % ( z E "       ' E E  E h a ' C " ' d 'd  %   $ m £  f $   ' #    $      g C #% E E h' bD " f   E  E % k'  $ " % $ % h  "  d E "  %  (  ™  $ $ # '  m & % (  $   $   $ j    $ %  $ # k c 'D  " d E "  % $ # ' ' d 'd  % $ # ¤ ¤ i m (      %  $ # & E E hj   & "  E c k h c   '$  ™ E%  $ # dc $ "  z  , & % an−1 ≡ 1 (mod n). ( % ( 'h      V "  {1, 2, . . . , n − 1} ™ (  & E E  # E ` #  E h a ' & %  n Ž“ { ˆ ~ ‘ ‘ (2, n) €‡ ˜ Ž{ €‡ Ž“ { ˆ  $ m $   a 2 3 5 7 } ‰ “ †~ k aa−1 ≡ −1 (mod n). €‹ ™  "   " d E %# " % −1 €~   ™ k  ?  a =(2 ) ≡1 (mod n) a €    " C "   $ B  & 10 34 ‘Œ ‡  a>1 a (2, 2n−1) & C u C #% ' E ` 1 ‰  b %  a | (n − 1)!    "  % ( " b$  a {   ( d h a    % " j  n=2 ‡ ( " 12 k' k $ n = ab (n − 1)! (n − 1)! 6≡ −1 (mod n) ™   n √ b Nc N $ y    j   $ c ' k  E  "  $ h "  Cy h%  "  E  E' E  " ` h u  Ž $   $ S    n      % " ™ # $  " h a ' C " " k%   € ‰ z %  'd ™ "    $ "  + ' % C k " k E o  Y T VX S  XV      €    Ž ‘ ‹ { ‡ †€‹ €‡ †€ ‰ ›€ ‹ ‰  } a ∈ {2, 3, . . . , n − 1} n 2340 = a = 2, 3, 5, 7 n 341 = 11 · 31 91 = 7 · 13 217 = 7 · 31 25 = 5 · 5      !        S  p   V X UV S  * VT  V S  TX  8    ]  z    $  j      C   "` bD % C 'h ' a E ' E d " "   '   % k h & (  ) " k E b $   J L "  h   N IG N L L  N   N    m   c'     %$ "b   "j  ' h  E m C h ` d m !  " ' ™ E z  &h  E  " ` d E  E l  4  1 1/        -.,,+    ` r ( ( "  ' u g (p−1)p m−2   a %  ™ "      C  h E b      ` (  $ E j h'    kb " "  E   k h  g0 s h   s   %  ≡ 1 (mod pm−1 ) g (p−1)p m−3 (  (   %y u m   6≡ 1 (mod pm−1 ). E     g  u  ™ " E ` „  " y     k h   E  &  % k E     $ 'h ' ' "   h  " E % C b %  $ u %y C h          "  E ™ "`  " E " E % % $ %y C h z  j    ' "    "  %   E %  E h " ™ # a  u ™   m k a }   y    %y C h   (   k h  ™ z $    % k $  " h E ' C   "  %  k " % k' k  b %  `    j           ( j   k h  %" h  k h m & k $    " % k'   E  b %     j     b % '   Z pm %a h  (   h k > ~ ˆ — { 'd $  $  ™ " ' "  E'  k " k% E  z "          m  y     ™  & "  (  '  k h  c  E j h'    r ; { k  d k    " $ ( $    k h  ' "` ' $   d# m d   "  E E  E  C " #   j  ™  " ' ' " E ™ " z  % C c' h    $   %  k h  ™ $ " E " # B  $ E'  k E h'  j     h { ˆ Ž € ‹ } { ™ ‡ “ ‰‹ ƒ ‰‡ “ € ˆ  ™ € ƒ‘ “ ~ { Ž‡ { “œŒ { ‡ ‰ †‹ † { ‡Ž ‰’ Ž ‘ {  {‹ { } € { ‡ {‹   ? ‘ {— € { Ž  ‘ ‡ {‹ ‹ € {  €‡ ƒ €  œ ‡  ‹  ~   ( W  ˆ ( $   $ %  $ # dc $ "  ' h  '  $ "` '  h'   % "  E %   & %y k l u m    c bD  E % $ # dc ™ # ( $ "  & ' $   $ "C  ' " $ C $ ™ # " z    $  '  E  % $ # dc $ "  ' h    $        $  ? ‰’ Ž ‘ {  {‹ { †} > ‡ {‹  {} ˆ Ž € ‹ } ( ™ ™  j  l Ri   ' " b$ % "   ˜ ˜ † ‘ “œ• { ‘Œ } }  ~ — Ž‘  ‰ ‡ ‘ ‰ Œ“ ‰} ‡ “œ ~ ? ˜ ‰ • ‹ €‡ ˜Ž“  ™   { €‹Œ ƒ ‰ “ ™     ( % ¢  b E% " E " %  $ # dc $ "  ' h  k ' a „ €‡ ˆ Œ     h E " B %y C h   k h  & %  h   $ j |Z∗pm | = ϕ(Zpm ) = pm−1 (p − 1). pk   k h     $ ‡{ } ‰ Ž ‘ ‡ †€ € “ { ˆ Œ ˜ { } {} ˆ Ž €  X & * " ' $ { ƒ‡ { {— Œ‘ ‡ { {— „ “’ ‰ “‘ ‰‹ ƒ { {— ‡ {‹  { “ ‰‹ ƒ – ( ™ ™    , e¥ , { {— „ ’“ ‰ { {— ‡ {‹  } { {—  €‡ ƒ €  { {— „ “’ ˜“ z $  C$ S    { {—  €‡ ƒ €  { & % {— „ ’“ ˜“ ˆ k E E a  C ' " $ # ' b   $ "j  h k " & % h  p  k h  " g m>2 m=2 ordm−1 (g) = (  & ™ " %y  (  k h  k "  ˜ › €‡ ordk (a) | ordk+1 (a) E % C % $  C h j h'       ~ † ˜‰ Ž ‘ {  {‹ ; { } € { ‹ } y Z pm ™ " E '   "      % Z pm p−1 g0 g = (p + 1)g0 p(p − 1) p2 g0 p−1 p2 g p + 1, p     p 2 (p + 1)p = 1 + pp + p + . . . ≡ 1 (mod p2 ), 2 p ™ # a    z  ' h  $ ‰’ ‘ „  ‰ ‡ {‹  {} ˆ Ž € ‰ ordk ( ) " % h k  h    $ { † ˜‰ Ž ‘ ‹ & a "  E E h d $ > } }  ~ —– { Ž 16k ‡ {‹  {} ˆ Ž € ‹ }  ‰ ‡ {  ‰ “ €‹ % m>1 h&  = pm−2 (p − 1)   { ˆ Ž dc " " " % k' h % $   ? ˜ ‹ €‡ ˜Ž“ ˜ ‡ €‹ ‘ ‰ Œ“ {‹ { } € {   u   m $   $ $   E' y  E  %  $ # dc "  ' h   T SZ * TX * V k  S U S S ¢ (   Cy    & E E  $ m # E  k $ U $    "   h%  k $  "C  " "  E h a ' C "  Cy ™   $ $  j  h%  kb '" b %    '$ E a ™ j 2 E k' E  j  € ‹ } $ y  %   ™ % k  k  $ " ™ # ( E  ' z ' " a k "   ™ h %  E E  "C  h%  'h    { €  & ˆ a2p −1 a2 −1  z ; ord2 (g) = p(p − 1) z   $  &h   ' £ # C    ™ $ n $ Ÿ ' E   dj E  E $ # ( "    # ™ ‡ a ' $ " ; ; % " $ (  d $ " ™ ' " b$ %   { † ' ‰} ‡ “œ ‘ {— n−1 n "  Ÿ E " D 'd  – d ' ` ` E " $    '# " † % b ∈ Z∗n " $ "  ` " j ' $   “‘ c k E      ™ %& ‰ “ €‹ ‡ {‹  } (a2 − 1, p) = 1  h&  $ n *  r ( ‘ †Œ E'  $ "  ' h  $ E E'  & “‘ ‰‹ ƒ { Fn ={a ∈ Zn : an−1 ≡ 1 (mod n)} Z∗n ™ "     & E E  $ ž  $ " $ y  k   $  E l % a %    E  "     E $ " % k'  $ " % k' (n − 1)/2 "'   '  ‘ †‰ $ c '   " $ $` $ j   ~ a a Zn  % $   “‘ ‰‹ ƒ $ k "  i %& ~ a   " "  &  %  k "  " C j &  % $  $ # % $  ¢  ™ " ' E "    $ "  =  ] ]   z       s (  ' E $ $   " a  m 2n − 1  h # k &h ™  k E h E 1 ∗ 2 |Zn |  " $ $ " % E E         d m ˆ ab −1 $ 1/2 "  $ $ + ™ C #%  ™ " {—  ab # ' " "   k% E   a k'     C  E a  % " k " n 21853 %  k E   $ " % $ $` d m £ d E a k bD E  j   'd  $ Œ $  ( %  %      $ # ' ` "` ' $ r (  $ %   # E  C  $  #j  ' " " c  " k E   " $ % k l "  j   $ E ' E k C " ( ™  ™  b E% '"  l $ "` − 1 = 22tn − 1 = (2n − 1)(2(2t−1)n + . . . + 1) ≡ 0 (mod n).    $    b k " " dc " ' d " "   " d E Ca E   "        $  $`   $ '  $ "` ' d E C h bE E # k " % k' k   C " b " "  %# C  k l % "    " $ " & E E h ( "  E   ¢ u m t  $  ' E  , $ |Fn | 6 " % k' k    " #  } 1 091 987 405 (  Ÿ E " E  m ' }~ p ' $ '  $ $ "  †‰ ‡ > %& {‹  { a E c  C $   s  c n (a, n) = 1 j  n $  "b C " E  $ n n  $  % %  $ * $ n n " $ by * # " n E  $ " # # a>2  % $ E " k } n −2 "'  * # E 2 " " h &h 22 2n − 2 = 2(2n−1 − 1) = 2tn ordk (a) = min{t > 1 : at ≡ 1 (mod pk )}. -     4  1 1/        -.,,+   1    4/  1  2     ™ ' % C   $  E % E  a $ ( ™ b   ™ 'h  %y C h  ™ ™ z $ h a  ' C " C ' $ "` '   m & %  &h  (  $ "   s  $ u       b   b" "C (  h E a % '  '$ $ "` ' C$ %  '$ ( % ' " $  g z    $  #     E ' E E E h ™ "  $ "  ¤ & %   a ≡ (mod n). n `  E  % "    m d B b $ ` " u p1  ( n = p1p2 . . . pk pi 6= pj   `  & %  b$ % " l n %  r E m  E % E j   – ž ; ? “‘ †Œ ‘  ‘ {— € { Ž  ‘ ‡ ‹{ ‹ € {  €‡ ƒ € m ˜ ˜ € ‰ € Ž  ‘ ‹ ‹ €‡ “ { } Ž > { {— „ “’ ˜“ ˆ ˆ  & & € { ‡ {‹  } € {  €‡ ƒ €  % % ?   ; € { ‡ {‹  } ™ ‘ {— Œ€ ƒ‘ “ ~ †‹ { Ž‡ { “œŒ { ˆ  ‰ {  { ˆ ˜ ˜ ‘ “œ• { Œ ‘ } }  ~ — ‘Ž  ‰ ‡ ‘ ‰ “Œ ‰} ‡ “œ ~ + >  Ž   { ‡ € “ Ž ‘ Ž‰ Œ ˜Ž‰ “ ‹ ~€ ‰ ’ ˆ ~€ “ ‹ { {—  €‡ ƒ € { {— „ ’“ ˜“ z S   V    " 'd#  b % ' " E % (  ' n        n " % ™ E ' % $  'd  † – ž a n−1 2 'd# $ $ # k " % k' C  E % E € { Ž‡ Ž‰ “ { ‹ “‘ †Œ ‘  ‘  a ∈ Z∗n d E b "  k C  n−1 #   ¤ a " h'  E %a    E 'h ? {~ € “ { † { “ ‰‹ ƒ ‹ ™ ‡ ‰ { &  & ' E  "    z S T T S X  * UV V TX   $   $ $    ' "  $ C C " Cy  Cy h%  k E E a  C ' " # ' " a :      l  ( h     Ej  ( $  "  "C  h%  ™ # ( $ £ hy " ( d  %# E  j   by  $     %  %      $ #  % $ # d $ "  " " D 'd E E h'    ' $ " % C E  ` r   $  j  z   " (  a E ' k " % k' " $     h  E %  %  $ # '     " ` ` u r m      k b E% " '    h  ™ " d " $ "   '    #  hj   ™ #` E a % $   % m ™ ( ™  d E " C&   $`    j   j    "  j  $ k " % 'k %k  $ #        # hj C b %   $ u  $ #    " m ( %   s  j  $   $  " % "  a E d "  E % $ # k E z    (  ( ™  a % k E h  a c E       `   "C  "    "`    Ej E  h E  %$ & % ™ $  % $ # % $ # E r m    & "  '   z $ E   hj % k " % k' ™ k ( ™ ™ ™ u ™ ™ ™ ™ ™ ™ ™ ™ ™ ™ ™ # # ` ¥ ,¥ r ' $     Cy $ % $  $ y    h%  b % " k " % k' k %   %  $ ¥ ¥ ¥ # &   25 000 000 000 16 561 1105 1729 2465 2821 6601 8911 10585 15841 29341 41041 46657 52633 62745 63973 75361 (    c k h c    '$  E %  %  $  ` r l 2163  h E n k` $ y  'd % $ u { ‘ Ž } > ‰‹ ƒ “  ˜ & n  % ' k b h "C { – €› Ž ‹ { œ ‡ ‹  ~ ¤ † , %    C h  " $  "  "  $ $ y       h  E # " " h k " % 'k k %  %   k $ "    s ` r ' % C "    ™ " (    y  $ # '    w ™ '  $   g & % ™  b E% '"  h%  _ ( " #   (   ™ #` "  " s ( c  ¢ ( ™ " ™ % ™ $  $ j "C  h%  'k % C   &h   h a    $  $   " E % k " h E  b "  h  m u ` i=1, . . . , k ai ord1 (ai ) = pi − 1 ain−1 ≡ 1 (mod n) (pi − 1) | (n − 1) k=2 n=pq p3 t n=p m t>2 (m, 2)=1 ord2 (a) = p(p − 1) n a an−1 ≡ 1 (mod n) p(p − 1) | (n − 1)  —{ € ™ Œ ` r ™ ™ ˜      p 2 2(m−2) hp ≡ (1 + kpm−2 )p ≡ 1 + pkpm−2 + k p +... ≡ 2   k h s s $ u & % ™ ™ %   % ™ “ E h 6≡ 1 (mod pm−1 ). E   &h  &h  "C   ™ ‡   S     ( 'h C "   j   ™ (   $   k E ' E d E E h &h   s c  "   $ "       "` $  ` "    m    4 7  1 1/        -.,,+   1    4/   2     1  a %    $ d " $ "  % k l an−1 ≡ (api −1 )mi ≡ 1 (mod pi ) an−1 ≡ 1 (mod n) (  E ' ( ™ ( ™ ‰   n E $    ƒ‘ “ ~ ‹ { i E E' ' % ' † ‰ “ €‹ & & V  2 hp = (1 + kpm−1 )p ≡ 1 (mod pm ) % E h  hy $  E  $ ; ‡ Ž n  $ £ C " b$ ‰ “ €‹ m ‹ E' h ≡ (1 + kpm−2 ) (mod pm−1 ), 'd "  E %  j { “œŒ { € €‡ ˜“ m−3 ™ n = p1 p2 . . . pk pi 6= pj n − 1 = (pi − 1)mi i c ( d % E  " “ €‹ & V n ' y  $ "  'd  '  % % ‰‹ ƒ m>1 p % ( ' $   l (pi − 1) | (n − 1) n = p1 p2 . . . pk pi 6= pj  $ u $  % C ' h  $  % ‡ ‰ p2 | n p > 1 n n = p 1 p2 . . . pk pi = 6 pj   "C b " E # "  "  " E k $ % "  hp ≡ 1 (mod pm−1 )  " (  # '   an−1 ≡ 1 (mod p2 ) p|n   $ &   % k 2pm ™ # C #%  (pi − 1) | (n − 1)  " l m % " " 2 4 pm k E' m 'd  a  E $  & %y i ordm (g) | pm−1 (p − 1)  h=g (p−1)p  n−1 2  a 2 = a 2 ≡ = 1 (mod n). n    "'  " " h * %  $ # * %  $ # ( %  $ $   $  bD  1/2 % k  $ 'd# a (mod n) a ≡ ±1 (mod n) ( ;  ;  %  z E $ " E " k ' ™ ( %  m at ≡ 1 (mod n)  ( k # % g ™ b $ k " % 'k %  – { ™ ‡  {  } n " " j   n an−1 ≡ 1 (mod n) $ “‘ Ž ‘  € ‡ ‰ ‰ ™ ˜ ˜ ‰ “ €‹ { ƒ‡ ‘ ˜ ‘ ˜ {  {} ˆ Ž € ‹ } Ž{ { Ž ~ ‡ €‹ ‹ {~ ‘ ™ ‡  ‘ † ‰ ‘ (   " b "% C j    ' E  "b %$    "j  hj {‡ € u  m  h'  h „  ‰} — ‘  € “– € ‹ €‡ ˜Ž“ = { „ {  Ž€ ‰ “ ‹ S ‘Œ ‡   _ j  ` j     E C #%   ' $ %E d m ! " b "% C d E  E l  $   $  $ c ' % k h  d "  ' h   'd  %   d ' E  $ " ` d m $ ™          %  %      $ # &  % E " ™ # C #%  d " D ` ` r ( ‰’ Ž ‘ {  {‹ { } †‰ > ‡ {‹  {} ˆ Ž € ‹ } †‰ Ž ™ ‡ ˜ “‘ ‰‹ ƒ { {—  { > {‡ › „ ˆ { E E $  h B  ™ %    C %  '$ C #% h   y k  ' "%  ' C h % &   $     y E ' E  ™ E € ¤ & > ‡ {‹  ‰’ Ž ‘ {  {‹ { k " ' $ y  dj     # '  " (  b ; ˜ > } }  ~ —– { } }  ~ ˆ — { } ‹ €‡ ˜Ž“ ˜ Fn = {a ∈ Zn : an−1 ≡ 1 (mod n)} {} ˆ Ž € ‹ } Ž{ {  € “– ‹ †} ˜ €‡ ˜Ž“ ˜  ‰ “ €‹ %& (   u d m ! " E %a ™ C h  " ¤ & % (  $ $ C 'd E     %$ & ™ $ " " B m z  y  $    ' E kb " k%    $ $ E  'd E %a h " E %   & E E h % k h ' % C  u † ' Ž{ ‡ €‹ {  & % † ‰ ˜‰ Ž ‘ {  {‹ { } € { ‡ {‹  {} ˆ Ž € ‹ } Ž{ {  € “– ;     ‰ “ €‹  $  $ ' " m  E'  kb " k% E  'd E %a h " E %   & " { ™ ‡ † ˜‰ Ž ‘ {  {‹ { } € { ‡ {‹  {} ˆ Ž € ‹ } Ž{ {  € “– & % a, b ∈ Z∗n   $  ‰ Ž ‘ {  ‹{ ‘ ‡  ‘   V ` 5 5 x B v ( " bE $ j 'd  > " E ; ‰’ Ž ‘ {  {‹ { } € { ‡ {‹  {} ˆ Ž € ‹ } ( ( ™ { { { ‡ ‰’ Ž ‘ {  {‹ { } € { ‡ {‹  {} ˆ Ž € ‹ } Ž{ {  € “–  ? ‘ {— € { Ž  ‘ ‡ {‹ ‹ € (  y E h a ' C "  & # E   { % E k E h a ' C "  & ˆ ™    & E 'h # &  €‡ ƒ €  œ ‡ q  ‹  ~   W ( ‰ “  X & * % ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( €‹  a ∈ Z∗n  "  E " # (  * E S  U U '  S  €› Ž ‹ 1 < a < C log2 n $ "` E   $ $ E ' E k " k% E    ‡ ‹ { Œ €‡ $ ( & 4 , 5 h % d m E $  −1 d a   S TX ˜“ ˆ † > ‡ ‹ d E " E " k ' '  $   E "   Cy `  ' %  $ $ ( (  ( & h%  %  a % h x B 4 , '  {  % k l a ;     ` t Ÿ '   Cy s−1 at , a2t , . . . , a2 −1 (mod n) '   ' " E j ™  E " #  { ( € ‡ ‹   ` ™   Ej ab E " % C $   ` d " E * E   + % $  $ E "     ab $ $ n * %h  b @    %   j n   a "'   'd c $  $ u n−1=2s t t a>2  h%  d ' E %   '   ™ " "C  ' " E   $ # d " ( '  d  n−1 2   $ k ` k'  $  $  " ™ C d  ; '   $ "    _ |En | 6 h '  g % E'  $  " h E c E  h $ m  " $   % $  %  '   " E % a    $ # $  E   E # j    %  "  ; Ÿ ' E $ $ " C %h a "   ` "   u * '  g   $ # `  '   %   € “– Z∗n : c " E   " #  %  "'    "  E  $   % v a ™ " $ %&  C #% + d " ¢ ; Ÿ ' E  " $ $ ¤ ;& k " ™ " k %&  C #%   m 'd k h    E En = a ∈ k " k% E by  $  $  *  E ' E  b$ $ "   by   $  &     t  'd      m & " d %   "'   " ™ " E % " $ k%  %  E 'd  E E  'd    , C >0 n , t   $  'd ,  E $ a " "  E " j  ' $  E   E  'd E   E % k ' %  h "  n ;   z    "'  " ™ " E % E   n E E % k       "`   "` %  '  $   $  E E " "   ™   $  %  ` O(log3 n) '  &    (  " 'd  E ' E  k  '  ¤ {1, 2, . . . , n − 1} (a, n) = 1 n z "b $ $ j$  Cy h%   "   " 'd  c  C  " E " k '    E   ' %$  "j   l   ( " h  c    '$  E % $ # & ™ $     " E % k " h E c  " $      " " ` m    " " k  $ E ' "  ` $ u  $ % 'k % C  y k  ' "%  ' C h z j  $ ' E   $ $ "  '      " bE " E " k '  m k 1/2k  $ ¤  * ' '  $  $ E CE " " E # & %  E &  E ' E  $  $ (   n ™ "  " $  y   E  by "  ( j    $ % $ & & & & " l            a a a a b a ... = = = −1. = n p1 p2 pk p1 p1 & & & f ; Ÿ E " C    D m %# '  & E E hb  % $  ( a ∈ Z∗n E E  j ' $  +     " h% " $ k $  " ' b "  n c  C   C " $ ' h   % E  " $ " E a _  $ a $       ™  E   E   % f n by E  " ' $ b % " $  j "  E '  ™   " ≡( na )≡−1 (mod p2 ) a ≡ 1 (mod p2 ) " E & &h ' " "   " $ $ "` d  2  a " k ' " "  ' E  E h  E  E l ' "   a ≡ b (mod p1 ),     a ≡ 1 (mod p ), 2     a ≡ 1 (mod pk ). $   $ " ™   n  n n−1 2 Ÿ ' E "  j  d a $ $ n n n $  E' b %  $ a n a a 1 n    a ≡ (mod n) n a 1 ∗ |Z |.  2 n  {1, 2, . . . , n − 1} (a, n) = 1 -     4  1 1/        -.,,+   1    4/  1  2     h  $ ™ d "  “‘ Ž ‘  € ‡ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‘ † ˜  ˜ ‹ €‡ ˜Ž“ n   “ ‘ ‰ j   (   % %  " b "% C '  % ™  $ ™  $  $ z '   ™ $ E C b %   $ u ™ " & $ 4 , B  & b % " kb '"   $ ™ * % "   u m % 'h '   "    ( ( ™ * "   f4 4 , ;&   D a l R  $ "  ™ " ™ ™   $  $   k E'  E  $ "  ' h  b E% *  $   k E' $ ;  "    E  ™ " ™ ™ ™   $ "  ' h  b E%  *   % ; $  $ "  ™ " ™ ™ k E'       ™ a h % ™  m   _  E ;  " $  $ %  e¥   $ $ "  ' h  b E%  % $  ™  $   $    $ "  ' h  b E% n < 25 000 000 000 n = 3 215 031 751 n n < 2 152 302 898 747 2 3 5 7 11 n n < 3 474 749 660 383 2 3 5 7 11 13 n n < 341 550 071 728 321 2 3 5 7 11 13 17 n ™ ™ $   $  $ $   k E'    E   "  ' h  b E%   $  ™ "  k E'  E   $ "  h  ™ ™ $   k E'  ™ * ™ " % $  $ " $ % ; $  "  z $ % %+  $ $ '  b E%  $   j   $ $   y b " ' k  c % k '  ™ ' " " dc $ " E h k %d E    b " C #%  # dc "  c b  n < 1 373 653 n < 25 326 001 2 3 5 n 2 3 5 7 E *   E%  C " $ "  `   j  $ $  E  a ™ j  E # E c b %  E % k h d " " k k E h  ™   ` m m E £ h (  $   $  $ $    E' y  E  % $ # dc "  ' h  b E%  & E E  # E  $ m "    % $  $ # & h a  % k % ™  h %  $ # c  " k "  z C ' " $ C a > 1 b $ "  p X € ‰‹ ƒ ‘  %$ "b "j  % $   C" " E  $ " + 'h  5 ` $  $   "   " k " % k' " $  h  % $ # c  2 ¤ m ( $   E' y  E  d $ "   ( Ri      %  % E       $ #C # ™   ` r f ¤ %  f & % +   Cy h z % ‹  ™ ‰’ Ž ‘ {  {‹ { †} > ‡ {‹  {} ˆ Ž € ‹ } {  “œ ‰ ( " % k'  " $ $ z $   $ ™  E E'  " $ $ "'  $  " ™ $ % y  % k " % k' k  % $ #  d "  ' h  b  # % k ™  h " % k E% 'd % $ $  $    $ # '    bD E   ¢ + ' % C $ $  E 'h # " $    $ " & E E bh " E     % 'k $ k % $ # E E h dc "  % %     $   $  $ z '  " $ ™ $ d "  ' h  b E%  k "  ™ % %  $ # k h % $ # k ™ h   ™ E    " k % A h z k'  $ " ™  ™ $  $ a % k  # ! "    ( j   b & $ ( " h  c   '$  E %  $ # z   j  '  "  E $ a " "  E "  ' $  E '"  " ™ " % &  " h d % $ 5 ™ z  E  £ ™ D C #% C ™ EC  'h  %   " ' E E %      m  $  & '  E  $ $ "  '      " Eb " E " $     E C E E h  d  y   % $ C   " bD E ™ E (   $ $ "  ' h   ; Ÿ ' E  $ $ " k * E' j   "'   " '    $ " & E E h k E ' "        ™ "  $ # c "j  E h  E % $ & &  k '" k ; $  ™ h  j    $ %  $ # % k h " ™ #%  h  " f  u   % k  $ # dc "  % k k $ " % 'k n E%   TXV €› Ž a " k E' j  E V\  € {‡ ‰}    ‘ — ™ C #% ( k "   Cy h%  $ y   "  $ "  ' h    ( 2000436751 = 487 · 1531 · 2683 ' `   $ ‹ ˜  hj  m  h'   € „ { „ { ‘    E %# y B  $ x '$ k ™  " c a ' $ "   E      ™ E a k j  3/4 652969351 = 271 · 811 · 2971  h  ' d E ˜“ ˆ a S * ‰’ Ž ‘ {  {‹ { †}  j z " " d m j E h  k n E S   € { ‡ {‹  }  Ž€ = dc m * k'    `  3 a  \ VT S ?  > ‰ “ ‹   E h y %  % $ " % k'  $ 2 " ` ] { ‡ {‹   S   V _  k    $ # " h   $ $  $ $ " " a ∈ Z∗n % j %&   TX  X ™ ‡ {} ˆ Ž € ‹ } {  “œ ‰ ‹ z  ™  E C #% $  k " $   E% `  " & b E%   u  a  d b E% p $     E' $ &    ™ $  '   $ 561 = 3 · 11 · 17 561−1=16·35 ¤ ¥ ¤¥    ) U S ? % E'  E  "   " m " $ %   "`  $ ` k " 0.7507    V  U V  n k 1/4k ( & "C $ %E    " % $ # 1 < a < 2 log2 n '&   h'  u '     $ $ y E h " k  ' $ j    $ $   C   "   0.7513 ' k`    z $ " ' k "  %h  $ '   E%  ' k b E k C " k  '  mod 561 263 166 67 1 1 'D %  $  m  $ " E " k '  "  $ #  " " O(sn) '  '  n $ h " "` k  ' C    " ™ #%  h'   ™ "  ™ r ∃ r, 0 6 r < s, a2 t ≡ −1 (mod n). " E $   a %  %y   ( % C c  −1  % $ d E E  h   % j    5     &h  ™     s ¢ a a    # % h ™ "C  '  24 , " C # E%    k% E  n % $`   $  &h   $  $ # dc h ( & '  h m ™  ' C #%  % 2 h ` k " " # ™ % ™  " " " $ "    % %  & E " k E mod 17 8 13 −1 1 1 $   % k' j   £ D $   $ C E % ' h $   ' E −1 E " n ™ k " %  h E 'd  & ™ a l R % k' k % k  $ 'd# 2 h z     v ' &  , 4 " " E  ' d E $    " E " k ' d `    1 1/    E  E     %h `   1    4/  1  2     -.,,+ -    a % h  e¥ 4 , E m ( & ( E  ™   c " (mod n)  (  k  h ( E E h'  (  u −1 # ! "   E w     `  b E% $ mod 11 −1 1 1 1 1 C  % h  b  cn0.133 E   ( ( & ,   r  mod 3 −1 1 1 1 1 %  D      −1 C E% '     %  '$ $ # 2 (235 )2 (235 )4 (235 )8 (235 )16 e 4 , B k h " E  `  " E 35 %#   c '$   $ $ $ E at ≡ 1 (mod n) C      ' $ # −1  ( ' & D   d E n % d % $ "  %  E (−1, −1, −1) n −1 s−1 k O(n1/10.89 ) (  d E a O(n1/7 )  " %&  (2, 2, 2) (at )2 , (at )4 , . . . (at )2 a n 2047 = 23 · 89 121 = 11 · 11 781 = 11 · 71 25 = 5 · 5 a  ( ¤ ,    " z "   { ‡ {‹  } – € “ Ž ‘  € ‡ ‰ ‰ > ‡  ‘ ‡ ‹ { €Œ a1 a2 [a1 (log n)6 , ‰ ‘ €Œ { • ™  œ ‡ ‹  ~ S  ? Ž‰’ { “ ‹ ~ ‰› ’ Ž{ ˜ €‡ Ž“ { ˆ ™ ~ ™   ‰‹ ƒ “‘ ‰‹ ƒ “œ € ‰‡ “ – € ˆ ‰ “œ { „ ‰ ‘  ˜“ ˆ { ƒ‡ € { “ n π1 (x) P (p − 1) > x2/3 ‰ ‘Œ ‡ € {  “œ ‘ ~ ‡ ‘  ‰ ‘ ‡  ™ “ € ‰‹ ƒ › > ‡ ‹{  } `  "b ( '  %$   "j z   ' E k $    $ "  ' k  &  ( %" $ z z   %   ¤   hj  `   j       "   % # ¤ &   % f  m  h'    d " $  $ #   ™  ™  "`  # $ $ y  +$ E d b  E %   k " m  m   E%   k k h   "j   E  j E # ( z j   j  E   ' C "  j   b "% C d b E%  E " hC n g E  k $ C b %   $ B ( $ b " E a % $ ¤ & %           Cy b E%  %E  "  dc " j  d h a ™ ' & D % $ #  b E%  E ` D 'h % kC h   & z    "  %  b  " m   " C  h m " %& C  "   ™ ' & $ £ C         b " % E  'd h  E %  ' " ' " ™ #b "' h%  $ "  h m  hy "  $ $   & %  j $  c ' k E # E b %   E   $   b " % D E  'd  E # "  " h %  & '  k  % & E  E   ' C   " (  ' " E  k  & h'   $ $ y  , %  (  ' &  u     E ' E k " '  $  $  " k E ' E " ' " %&   z        j  D  ' % k h " a  % # E ™ # ( " %&  C  j %  E  z u _      $  $ 'd# k $   "C  " ' " E'    & "  '   E $ E'  " h   $ E  ` u m ( C "    " (  d E    E   " E      ™  b E% "'   $  ( ™ E  &h  s ™  z $   & D    Cy h%   $ C  "  dc "      h  " ™ # z $    % C E  ' E  ' E   $ $ $ u " b "C ™ %" h    j $ $ "  E  ' (   ™ u  *  kb "'  # E $    j " a %  "  'h "  k E $      d      ™ #` "  " % $ b# % %"   $  $ (   % C E   h` E d " E     ' ( ' ™ " $ "   $ y Ca E E k " '  dj  z  j b % "    E # E ™ "  16 log2 n + 1>8 log n r=n   E ' % €‡ †€ ‰ { Ž >  “œ € ˜ ˜  ‰  Ž ‘ ‡ ‹ { Œ ‹ ‘ ˜ – ˆ ‡ ˆ ~ ‘  ‘ {— “ ˆ ‰ Ž€ ‘ } ‹ €› Ž ‹  E ™ j # E  Ÿ  k h c h O((log n)6 )     $ # dc " $ ƒ‡ r −1 E y   ™ € {  n0 %$ _ ' %  ‰‡ { “ { }   $ $ ( j  # E Ÿ %dc  & % p & & % N ( $ y ‘Œ €› Ž ‹ n > n0 C c $ ‡ { “ ˜“ ˆ ‡ ’Ž & (  $ c ' % k h ¤ x=4 log n+  d b E% k  ? r  #  ‰‹ ƒ { ƒ‡ π1 (x) > c  ' "%  £ q | or (n) E  € { ™ ~ ‡ €‹  ; Ÿ ' E   "   c>0  $ '   ‡ {‹ € ‰  r=2  [a1 (log n)6 , a2 (log n)6 ] C ‰ √ q > 4 r log n h '  } ~ ™ 'h " %&   $ u  $   E a (  E'   (  j   ' "    b$ % "   u l  z C #%    ' E C b    E  ` d b E% " a %      s   % ™ C $  " u  z *      " E    z 'd '   √ r−1 > q > 4 r log n 2 √ r − 8 r log n − 1 > 0 x2 −(8 log n)x−1=0 r>64 log2 n n % ™ ( " ‘Œ     h'   P (n) p p6x $   ˜ ‹ ‡ € { S   V ( % B √ 2 r log n=O((log n)4 ) #   b$ % – €‡ ˆ ‘  “œ n0 "   ‘ ~ ‡ ‘     + h " b  $   ' " E'   Ej ™   E% '" $ "`  l , & % j c k E # E (   %  $ # &    $  " E E " a %  'd   ` `  n b " “œ € a2 (log n)6 ] j   ‰‡ “ € ˆ     "  % $ % n > n0  % ; b r−1 l  %   ` ; Ÿ ' E $ $ "   &  #  , a "' 6≡ 1 (mod r) %" h  $ "  ` m   ( (x − a)n ≡ (xn − a) (mod xr − 1, mod n), dj r−1 q a n−q  n  bD %   & % ; ¤ ab b > 1 n, E r←r+1  £     (   n   & l (n, r) 6= 1 xq n q xi  & E $ "  % % ¢   f (  r  b  (  h%  $ (x − a)n ≡ (xn − a) (mod n). ' * q √ q > 4 r log n %" $  ( ' dj 0 ‘ {— Œ€ ƒ‘ “ ~ { Ž‡ { “œŒ { ‡ ‰ { †‹ † ‡Ž ˆ $    ? † ‘ {— > ‡ {‹  } {  ‰ ‘Ž  ‰ ˆ ( (    ; Ÿ ' E   $ $   "   Ÿ (     ,  ( d " 2 , A      9    -  ( ( (   ( 9 (  (  (  % ,            % &   +       (  $      /    ,f  .                      (  ™ ™ b " " " E   '   , & √ 2 r log n (x − a)n 6≡ (xn − a) (mod xr − 1, mod n) $ "    € { ‡ {‹  }  $ "    "   Cy h%  E E' E " %& $ ‰‹ ƒ œ ‡ ‹  ~  “‘  S   V n C % % ( %" n h m ; ;  'd# 5 a  E n−2    ( r q qt Ÿ  e C ' h ((x − a) − (x − a)) n " ; ( r1 n  (  r  ,¥ E &h k  ( c $ a  &  , , 2   k n n = q t (q, t) = 1  r=n  % (   E n a a r x . log x P (r − 1) > (a2 (log n)6 )2/3 > r2/3   1     4/  1  2        4  1 1/        -.,,+ -    &h '   $ ‘ ˆ  ‡ ‘ n z  h      (  E  z   " u r ‰ C  s  z    &   E    d m $ " h'   b$   E  " " %&  a & D  (  ' &   E %#  ' k $  " '  E  %   & ` (     z    " %y C h  b " h'   u ™ $ b " E a % $ "  z   O(pol(log log n)) r † ( " '$   "  % √ 2 r log n = O((log n)4 ) { Ž‡ € ( O∼ ((log n)12 ) #   hj  E%  # h' ¤ $   $       % E k $   "C  " % %" h ` m m    j   h   "   '  & D k E % E  'd % k h % $ #   5 z  'd  %  '   '  ,  u & % ( E %#  ' b "   E  E  a " ` D k $  " k% E O((log n)4 log log n)=O ∼ ((log n)4) O((log n)6 )  *   j   k E h'  ' & b E% '"  h%  $   $ z    " %&   E' b %     j  $   & D & k E x E % E  'd b "    $ " E a % $ " & c E x k E a CE _ ™ % $ ™ ™ ™ % $ $ % ™  E E *    k  E ' E C  E D    j  j  $ #   $ E #  ' 'h '  E k E%  ` ( " %&  b  & D "    $ $  z  'd  & b E% "'  h%  E k ( %  $ # "  dc $  $ c ' % k h  E # ™ E %  $` E  " $ "  z k E   ™     ™ E E a E k  k E h  a c E % k l p 6 blog2 nc Ÿ{ ‡ {‹  y " % k' & E ' k " ' E a   c ' m     " xk−1 = 1 ' & ' k%  k e   " C _ $ # x xp = n } $ "  $ " $ k " E  'd O∼ ((log n)9 ) k% E ¤ % k $    x   #  A  b E% "'    h%    $ C " b " % E  'd E a  %  $ # % $ ™  'h " ( ™ "  z j   k   E #%  '   " d  dc   C  '   C   " u b 6 blog2 nc  *  E  E'  ' " %& &  ` & )  %  a E h'  j  k E (  k+1 p € ‡ “œ 'd $ '  % E%  $ 'd#  $ E  'd b ' C   i=0 k X { ‡ {‹ ' " CE % & % $ " E b % " x=     E'   %  ( a % r ~€   &   "  #`  $ '   B h "  ' " ab b > 1 ? n  " %& k & E  '   ( ( (2 ) 6 n < (2  ˆ  n  %  ' "   k p } €‡ ‘   bh     C   '  "  h E%  $ h' ' ™ $  $     $         & "j  "   " 'd " %&  & D & '  b " b E%  %E  ™ # " z $   "    E k E # E c '   " ™ # C #%  u j  h  E # E (    E  % k ( z  $    b '" b %     j  $  "  "  % k h C h ' " b$ % " j   l ™  $   ' " —  E'  E m c " E " E  cd "  k " %k ‰‡  { “— S   V ? † € “ ƒ { {—  >  { ‡{ € – œ ‡ {‹   { “ ‹ ’ ~ €‹Œ ƒ ‰ {‡ } †‡ †‘ ‰ Œ   $   $ y E  'd ‹     E   ' D  € ˆ   d m pol (x)  †  ' "   k  j " (  ' & c bD %   x {— " ™ #b  $ b E' m % E  m     E'  E  # d %  " C # C$   " O∼ (f (n)) ‰‡  & '     $ "   6 { “— 8 k E %     (  E # " "  m $  k " k% E  'd n € ™ Œ   E a %  $  $ " h  ™ #  " d   & u × pol (log log n)) ƒ‘ “ ~ †‹ " a E  C$    E j h'   b  E 'd xk = 1 { S  l  Π    d# B z c3 (log n) < N, log log n Ž‡  r−1 q V 'd   E ` ' k  ™ d  $`  − 1)  r−1 r−1 6 2/3 < r1/3 < x1/3 , q r C$   ™ E   E " C&     %"  log a1 > 0 log a2 < log log n n p { (  $ "  % ` h _ %   &h  h d "  $ ca2 (log n)6 c2 a1 (log n)6 > − > log(a2 (log n)6 ) log(a1 (log n)6 ) ca2 (log n)6 c2 a1 (log n)6 > − > 7 log log n 6 log log n   (log n)6 (log n)6 ca2 c2 a 1 > − , = c3 log log n 7 6 log log n “œŒ  6≡ 1 (mod r). Ej y  $ $ r ' % C k " $  ( %" h dc  s   a E h& $ ( ' $ "  E " ™ # E N > π1 (a2 (log n)6 ) − π(a1 (log n)6 ) > {  ` ` # $ "   $ "   u   x x < π(x) < c2 . c1 ln x ln x ‡ or (n) %"  h  E &  b E%    b$  m & %    &h  n h y k  ' E % k   "' '    % E 2/3 E "  "%  ' C h h    ™ "  " $ C $   "  Π = (n − 1)(n2 − 1) · . . . · (nx ™ # ™ > 4 r log n j b √ E " ( % $ # E %a hC  x2/3 log n < ™ nr−1 ≡1 (mod r)   r−1 q ( %    "   x = a2 (log n)6 d m  $ $ "   #  ™  b E% '"  % %" k $ y   w h  * $  " q = P (r − 1) > r 2/3 Ej n  E  Π %a h  $ "`  l b %  % k x2/3 log n  ™ % $ C#  m (  a2         %" h a1 h or (n) | (r − 1) d E 'd   q | or (n)  s  _ c3 > 0 (  $ "` C& h n0 q  0 < c1 < 1 < c 2 O((log n)12 × O(f (n)pol (log log n)) xi 2 i , (2k + 2k−1 )p 6 n √ O( r pol(log log n)) = O ∼ ((log n)3 ) O(r(log n)2 pol(log log n)) = O ∼ ((log n)5 ),   1     4/  1  2         4  1 1/        -.,,+ -  ' " Xp   k  hy $ £ pk ≡ 1 (mod r)    d|k ( ( * ™ "C   m ( C b |G| > |S| = $ u % E  d−1  Ig(x) = {m : g(x)m ≡ g(xm ) (mod xr − 1, mod p)}. d E %# "   j  ™ '    j  E   d E y  Fp  ( " %& & D E d       2     h ' " ™ #C " "  $   # '  "  "  ™ ™   " %& %         & '  & z # 'd C %    '$ C   "  u m  %  $ # % %"   %   $ √r r > q > 4 r log n > l n  % C   " ™ #   " d " E % % ' " '  $ % $ d m ! d m (  d m g    1 6 a, a0 6 l  $ Cy ' " "'  "  d E k $ % $ z    E   j  y  % d E %# " hj d E%  #    $   & E   " ' " ™ # a  u   z   b "C $ u dc " C   f & %      $ 'd c ' % k h %  ' " '  & % z *  j  y    %&    " m  d " b "% C  E a %  $ # b % %" h    $ "  k " h ` ` ( % k ™ h %  $  h C #% " ' C b %   $   ™  %"  h E %a ¢ £ b " %   ™  # ' "   " ™ #    z $ %" h dc   "  ' " $ u  %" h    $ "  " `  E % E    k $  " %  'h    E%  #    & E dc ' h    "  $ $ v    s  k'   &  " k "  ( b   k h  r ( %   $ #` % " h  y   a  b % ( ( (  "C ¤  $      $ "  E h E " C ` h m %  ' ™ ( dc  " $ u    z ™ ' " j   E  %    k $ " ™ $ ' " $ a E h   C & '   $ ™    d " E % " ™ # a  u  b C   C &   ™ (x − a) 1 6 a 6 l G h Cy  %#  %  ' $       b % b" " d m ! " a '  h&  ™ ` C #%  " $ $ v  ( ™ "  (  j  $ "  b %" C k " # E j %    k % k  d " E   $  % ' " # E   " %&    2 $ B & D C %  z $    g  $   $ #  "   $  E h E " ` h m C E  %  '   ' % & % (  $ y   k E ' E C  k E D k " % k' * $ Ÿ  "  b "C $ $ u     " b "% C j  " h " %& " ™ #  a %  h (  ' E  " $ u   "  E %  & h a  % k h  % k      E ' E $ E % E  'd  j  $  $      ( $ Ÿ  "   C   "  ™  % ™ " C h m j   " b "% C  ( * j     E a ' E Ÿ ' E $ " $ & % & % $ c ' % k h  ¤    B $    E  'd h& ' a  "  E ' E  $ %  ' " *  " b "% C b % " kb " # E j  " a " %&  E Fp (x)/(h(x)) $ #`   E%  # &    " % d ™ " ( % k (  ua 6 d − 1. " $ ¢  " m     d " s  & X  $ u E   " ' ( " b "% C & % ' E  $   E ' E  ™   $  ¤ % h  k6d √ l = 2 r log n Fp (x)/(h(x)) = GF (pd ) √ |G| > n2 r G S d  C   "  b ™  d m  " # j j  &h     $ %  h E Ca k "  b E% "'  h%  $   ™ " (x − a)ua ,    j  m E C % $ " h c '$ E%    bD E   % (  E%  # & ` '  $   $  "  ™  E ' Y C    '" _ % p 2 l = n2 r , > l l! l √ d = or (p) > q > 4 r log n = 2l g(x) G    % % $  z     E C $  E'   & %   $ " d g(x)p ≡ g xp    "  E #j  b  %$ p1 f $ b a  u  b % $  j '    &h      hj d    $  (x − a)n ≡ (xn − a) (mod h(x), mod p), k (  E E b m % d m ™  C #%  $ ( % k   $  s & E   (x − a)n ≡ (xn − a) (mod xr − 1, mod p). "  d   E%    j  #    '$ " ™ #b   "j  (  Fp = GF (p) h(x) 6= x − 1 E ' E %a h  E  # & h(x) E g &    &  ' Ca   $ E   # E '  $ q >4 r log n q | or (n) pi 1 6 i 6 k (or (p1 ), . . . , or (pk )) q | or (p) n √ 1 6 a 6 2 r log n √ ( % $  $ "     'h b % " kb b  %$ $ " £  Ÿ E  n C  ( * E b '  "   &   " k% E  n=p k E k $ "b %$  E  " % $ #C b % 'd   " r =n n  $ ' h(x) r r  E    E C #%      E $ n k y %"    "j  $  ™ " " %&   " n " % 'k k d " *$ " $    $ p E   k   E%  # & ™ bh " # k Cy 'D ( d " E or (n) "  h    m b d = or (p)  k h  E C 'd  "C $ u $ " £  " E  r −1 % ' $ c  E ( ,  " Fp (x)/(h(x)) "  % _ C $ u a h(x) | (x − 1) (n, r) = 1 ( j   r  %$  &  & r # "  (  r n E %   " r n  Fp (x)/(h(x)) − X = 0, r | (pk − 1)  k h  " # n r n d xp − x ≡ 0 (mod h(x), mod p) ≡ g(x) (mod h(x), mod p). d Xp − l+1   1     4/  1  2        4 7  1 1/        -.,,+ -    `  j   d b ` , & % ™ ‡ ‰ m ˆ ™ ˜ ˜ € ∃ a ∈ Z∗n , (an−1 ≡ 1 (mod n)) ∧ ∀ q | (n − 1), a n−1 q { Ž‡ > ‡ {‹  } ‹ ( %  $ z    $ ' E    " b " d m   d "  $ "   " '  `  n  ™ z       k y      Ej E  h 'd  ' " k E " j  ' $   D  ] S   ( y $ %  $ # dc "   j   C  h k E   "   $ c " %& ' " k E ™ $   $  $        d! # m E d " ™ %  $ # d " "  'k % C d E # " " h  " $ $ v  (  E   "  $ % $  # $ "  $  $   "'   " E C #%  % ( % $ #   Cy h%  k $ " g $ Ÿ    $   "  ™ " *      $ h " " k $ " k E    z $  Ÿ    m 'd   "  ™ " * " h E E  ™   $       c g $   " b E% "' E "'   " " " % $ `  h%  $ " (  "'  " d b E% " h ' C " $ £  hy "    (  "  %   j  $ #    "j % ™  $ #  $ "   " E k $    "C  " dc "   h $ ` ` m $ B ` 'd ™  $     $   'h   & b E%    %$  $ #b " b E% "' h%  $ k "  E k  "   m  "  ™  "  ( ( f $ B   ( 6≡ 1 (mod n) + '  " C #% E E h' c k %     $     $   $ # dc $ "  k  E  " $ % k h m £      s  C %  E   ( % ' h k  &  C$ " h E ' C dh h  C %   b  j      Ÿy E E  ™ " ™ Ÿ $ "  ( * $ $ $  k $ " k  E   ' "` ' " Ÿ "  "b '    " %$    "j  h  D ( d w  '         " d  "'  "  b "' h C "   &  E C " ( d u * E  z $ $    $  % C dc  $ E # " " h   E E   E d E'  E d " " d E E ™ h E "  j # E kŸ ` ( $ "  ' n † † ˜ # " a   &    C " Cy %    "     X  q    n Ž‰ { €‡ &   "  '  $   c k   " ' C n “ ˜Ž“ " ˜ d " { “ ‰‹ n ‹ ~ ‹ €‡ $ "  '  % C  '   Cy _  z a %  (      " u  $ u n ƒ € "b %$   "j  E # 5 h%    dj  "  E  ™ " "C ™ "   C #%      ™ C h  "  $  ™ # " & "b " E $     & %   E h C& b % $  & E E   hj D 'd   "  ™ E * E      " d  "'  " % ' h ™ z * $  " k ' %  Ÿy  $    d "  $ "  'k % C  j E  d   m  E   j  c E % ' b %  h       j   $ % Ÿ "  E  d " ™  % h & m $  z   $ y d  $    C dh h  ' " " "  %# "  $ "  k " % 'k k b E% '" $ "` h (  ) ' " B ( ™          %  $ # d  ' k  " " h a ' C " E    ' ™ C "  $ "  %E  $ #   '   d m   $   $   b"     "  " $ $ v   (  a dc "    E E     ™ #b 'd % h'   $ %  '  s $ u h&  b "C ™  " % " a  $    l  ™ # ( ! "      " ! !       ™   %  ' " E   %   j  k h  #  # j E  m £   y $    $ #C " "  b "' dj  h  ( % g(xm1 )m2 ≡ g(xm1 m2 ) (mod xr − 1, mod p). “ {  “œ  &  e ,  $     ( (  ( C h  " ™ z * *    $  $ $   v x j   % k '   % %   E m   E " k'  % ' " " D 'd dc E _ ™ z           E " $ $    m  h E d " %& d E E'  j  h E d ' E  "    z  $    j    % b "' b %  $  E C h c k C #% c    & E '  "    ¢  m m ™ (  d E " C&   $`  h _   " %&    & b E%  E j c k h E # E    %    & E E hC ™ # Cy D C #%  E  Cy ™ C z  %   "  ™ # $  b "  C h " $  j $  dc  # E   # "   c '   " O(log nlog log log n ) { } Ž > ‘ ‘ ~ ‡ ‘  h "  % k ™   k b E%  "   ™  C #%  " n {— €Œ ƒ‘ ( % $ " ( & '  ™ " " % k'  $ ™ %  %&   `   &h  ™  C #% ™  $  n “ ~ †‹  y  ™ h % h  j b d ™ $   " h  $ # d " D 'd d E  '$ b %  " ™ " "  E'   n { S E' b n Ž‡     E $`  $ "   E   Ej  $ #   " m  " ' E  "    h'    (  E a j  ni1 −i2 =pj2 −j1 k>1 { r=n   %  ` "  E  '    # k " c   '  m 1 ≡ m2 %  m 'd       hj b " h    s    s g(x)m1 g(x)kr = g(x)m2 = g(xm2 ) = g(xm1 +kr ) = g(xm1 ) = g(x)m1 . V b %     u E " ™ # $ " #   " # og g(x) Fp (x)/(h(x)) og = |G| m1 , m2 ∈ Ig(x) m1 ≡ m2 (mod r) m1 ≡ m2 (mod og ) m2 = m1 + kr k > 0 Fp (x)/(h(x)) “œŒ  E # " C   " h ™ $  $   $     ™  " $ C E g(xm1 )m2 ≡ g(xm1 m2 ) (mod xm1 r − 1, mod p), { z $ " h % k  " E  'd b % " E " %& b E%    B g(x)m1 m2 ≡ (g(x)m1 )m2 ≡ g(xm1 )m2 (mod xr − 1, mod p). ( z    $  "'  " " %h  `  Ej ' k w  & E E bh  " # E ⊆ Ig(x) n i 1 p j 1 ni 2 p j 2 E%  d % E    d " ( E , # $ % "  (  d E   j  $ # E  # E    $ "   " b %E  og | kr  %E ` h b   E n   $ $ " % " a m k   $ " $ √ og >n2 r n = pk E d # dc  $ " C   j  #  c bD %     E " % $ $ E # " " # "  "  %  E =1 E "  c b   #   $ ` h % k r kr ' $    E%  % k h "   h b  " ni1 −i2 ≡ pj2 −j1 (mod og ). √ r '   b "  ` h E   " # g(x)  j # ™  E " % " E = {ni pj : 0 6 i, j 6 b rc} √ |E|=(1+b rc)2 >r E (i1 , j1 ) 6= (i2 , j2 ) ni1 pj1 ≡ ni2 pj2 (mod r) ni1 pj1 ≡ ni2 pj2 (mod og ) √ d   $`  E " C $ h m   # j # E %&  n|i1 −i2 | p|j2 −j1 | ‘ {— €Œ ƒ‘ “ ~ { Ž‡ { “œŒ { ‡ ‰ †‹ † { Ž‡ †‰ > ‡ ‹{  } ™  ˆ ( ™ E “‘ ‰‹ S   V } e , 5 5   u  ˜ ‰  ˜ ‹ ‡ ˜Ž“ ’ k>1 C “ € ˆ q a % ‡ k   # "   n E E' E $  j   E   s ™ d  $ " C h m  ™  b E% "'  h%   % a 3(Fk −1)/2 6≡ 1 (mod Fn ) h – € ˆ n = qk R + 1 > 1 $ € — # h   (  ` "  '  ™ '      Fk 6≡ 1 (mod 3) Fk ≡ 2 ≡ −1 (mod 3) { { “ Cy  E E'  d  C &  `     E' j  $  ™ C #% '$ " E   b# % ‡ {‹ ™ "  $ $ $  E  y   y   E % " " E   d  % b    s Fk 3   € h%  E "C k " C h m  d n−1  }– •  k h k E E l   j   ' E   $    s ( %  j $ "  E  ' (  " ? ˆ  'dc   c     " E # "  C #% d  C ` % k l  $ C# "  ≡ %" † $    Ej   (  $ "  m     `  $  "  b '" ' " E ( % f †€ , g & % & % k Fk = 2 2 + 1 E  €‡ Ž ~ >  ‡ €‹ ‘ Œ{ h % $ *  '" " # %   ( %  dj  %   % = d m !  #   % Z∗n {  { {‡ € Œ ‹~ ‰ “ œ S  XV " % % z %   b  m  &   $ # % d E E' E $  " a E $ $ ™ " %& `   j   m  d $ "  h " % k ' j    Fk 3  h` $ "   ‰  ‹ ‡   t  U %   E   c E kb "' b %    '$ % d E E'    E  E    k h  " ™ #   ™ ‡ ? ‹  ~ & E &"  % "% C  % E  `  E j   a %  y     ≡ (−1)(Fk −1)/2  * b "C $ u  $    $ # d m  ™  E  " b h  j  j  h a    } † ( E %E $ h  "   $   c E % k h  (n − 1)  "    € “ € R (a(n−1)/q −1, n)=1 p = qk r + 1 p ' &" %E V # % + " $ E  +   h j # E dc "' b %   $ E " ' $    s $ # 2 ™ #  " 'd ( ‰‡  u  S   ( ™ " n  d ˆ “ € ˆ  u  %    " " $ '  ' k   E a j  " d E ' E a  3 Fk C  ‰ €‹  ™ ' E'   h   ` $ c ' m     #% Ž‰ ˜  q V  ( & , 4 , q   d  $ # c ™ % n " b$  €‡ †€ € S  B & %  j % $ # E $ " E " k '    3(Fk −1)/2 ≡   % " ’  f "   & E h % k h &  $    Cy   " Fk −1 q=2    " 'k ‰  V n−1 hy $ £ j   ˜Ž“   " (   E d m ! , % C #%   m &  " ( ™    `   E " '   $    &  E  %   ¢ m $     z "   b " $ %  ' ™ " $ "     g l    u  b  %$   m h E % $ &  "   E j h'    '$  ( d  # & % ' " ¥ m (  j b$ % "   ,¥ ¥ ' 2 %E h ` d!m $ % k bh  "      $ "C " d  $ " C  ` h m  d "  E ™  (  % d ' E  " 2525223 "  $ an−1 ≡1 (mod n) n “‘ (   n ' % $ j k " c E % E    % ;& , 'd (mod 3)  % l u   C C ( "  ' $  E Z∗n C j + 1 = 4294967297 = 641 · 6700417. € z  % % $ #  kj b %  $ ™ b  "'  "  'd ' % $    " Fk ( F12 ˜ n=5      b E% " "   " $  $ " E % ™ " ™ C % ' ord(b1 . . . bs ) = q1k1 . . . qsks = n − 1.   ‰‹ ƒ b %  Fk = 22 + 1 k = 1, 2, . . .  '  "  "'  E   h E a  `  $ " &  &h   m | (n−1) ϕ(n)=n−1 h z   &  " % ™     " " " h " d E # & %  $  & " n−1 z ™  ¢ d 'h % k  %    $ "  b " d m $ y  $ # k " ' C   " $ %y % *   n  (  $  $ # '  " a  dj ‘  A , E Zn  $ #   " b  " #   † E  €   h%  $ a = b 1 . . . bs %  E E% '" ™ & 'h % $ # "  u ¤ % $ ord(a)=m $ j   a %  $ "`  E (  &h    †‰  E  C Z∗n " #  j   ' %   a %  h  % '  dj  ™  C #% ™ #   " a ∈ Z∗n # ™ %  E CD  h " u $  $ “‘ ‰‹ a1 , . . . , as ∈ "  %    'd   n "  m=n−1  ™ #    h'   ™ $ w n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 "  ' f5 , ( & ¤ ` (  d " $  a  2 +1 m = 2k m (  )  u   '  % %  j  "' bi d " $ '# c  i 5    qiki  $ E' ( & e e F5 = 2 2 5 k y   ,  * h ∃ a ∈ Zn , ord(a) = n − 1  n−1 ∀ q | (n − 1), ∃ a ∈ Z∗n , (an−1 ≡ 1 (mod n)) ∧ a q 6≡ 1 (mod n) (1) ⇔ (2) (1) ⇒ (3) (3) ⇒ (2) n − 1 = q1k1 . . . qsks i ai ord(ai ) | (n − 1) ord(ai ) ki n−1 q | ord(a ) bi i i qi ord(bi ) = " % k' k E a  B  n  F23 "   n a n 3(Fk −1)/2 ≡ −1 (mod Fk ). 3 (mod Fn ). r p    1     4/  1  2       ,       / 1/            1/  - ,+ - $  y   $ ' (   "   n  (  (      ‡ ™ { ƒ‡ € { ‘Œ ™  € { ‡ {‹  }  €‡ ƒ R   ™ " % mk 1 n = pm 1 . . . pk q | (pi − 1) n ≡ 1 (mod q) Q = qt + 1 > 1 ™  ? € { ( $  %  $ # d " "   z   b " e e   d m " a a  ™ " ( & 4 ,     d E E ™ h E &" %E    `  u  "    m  $ ( ( E  ( z '  h%  _  %  E   j ' z   b %  d  C   &` ' E  $ %  " " ™ #  b  # u "%  C  $  " E %# "    $  C$ d C  " %  $ # c h  $ $  q | (pi − 1) j  j " € ˆ ™ — ' '  ™ # % " b % q '  ™   ™ # ‡ {‹ € { “  } "b %$  Rl  " "% C    pi bE " m b   € • €‡ Ž   "j   ¢ %" C #%  (  + 'k % C   u ( %" h E     C  "    "%  ' C h %y C h "  E  %     k h   z " ™ # C #%  ™ #  "   "C  ' ( "   ` z       C " $ "   " 'd c  " $   " d   "`  $ ` " C %  '$ d " ™ # " E ` m ( ( z   E # j   & % E  $  b "C ' " l $ u  b$ % " j   'k % C   $ j  &h  s " %   "C  ' " $ $  " ™ #     ‘ Ž‰ ˆ  % k h " " ™ # ™     $ j  " 'd d " 'k % C   h&  s ( ‡ ‰ ? z     $  % hb " 'd    a E h& ' "  " ™ # %  ( * † “ ‰‡ = € ˆ m ? † {  { ‡{ € Œ  ‰  } ˜ – ™ { ƒ‡ € { ‘Œ ‡ € { “ € • €‡ Ž ~ “‘ ‰‹ an−1 ≡ 1 (mod n) p n ƒ “œ € ‰‡ € ˆ “ { ‡ ‹{  } ‹ – €‡ ˆ ‘  { ‡ €‹ ‹~ ‰ “ ‹ € “ € ™  *    d b E% '   " E  ' E $ $ € ˆ — œ ‡ ‹  ~ S    ` $ u  " b "C ' " b$ % " j  ‰ ™  ’ ˜ €‹ € ˜Ž“ ˜ €  € { ‡ {‹  } ? (  € { ‡ {‹  } { “ ‰‹ ƒ { ™ ‡ E a ™ { ƒ‡ € { Œ‘ ‡ € { “ € • €‡ Ž ~ ‡ €‹ ‹~ “‘ ‰‹ ƒ ˜“ € ‰‡ “ € ˆ { {— ‡ {‹   j  " b "% C  Cy h%  b$ " C #%   E ` ™ " ' % C %   $   $   %  m m  a(n−1)/q 6≡ 1 (mod n) z R  &h  i d m ™ $ "   { q a  ™    E ~  h % ( j (    hy i i an−1 ≡ 1 (mod pm a(n−1)/q 6≡ 1 (mod pm i ) i ) mi t a pi t | (n − 1) t (n − 1)/q qk | t k C  E% "'  " ™ ‡ ‡ €‹ œ ‡ ‹  k h % j    h  % $ " " $  % b $ "  k h Ca E  E %a mk 1 n = pm 1 . . . pk " h%  _ * b "C $ u ‹~ ~ (  = &      C % $ £ ™ $ v  C % $ # (  $ b# % %"  h`  q $ "   "C  ' " $ C $  ‰ “ ‹ E' j  " "   d " "   n  (   % %"   a    s  "  b %   b ™  k  ' z d      y     h " C %#   ™ # ™ l ™   V  ( y  ? ™ ‰ “ ‹ = € ˆ —     $  j     $  ' "  E'  b " E E &" %E  u  '" % " #  "  { „ ’“ ˜“ ˆ œ ‡ ‹  ~ S   C #% E  $     ` , V X  S   V 8 q   $   $      "    E  k " % k' k k " ™ C    "`  Cy h%  C #% m m  $      # % %" h c ' % k Ch " Cy E E h k k E  ` u ™ %  $ d   z   ( (    Ej  h     s ( (  $ B d   "` % C %  C   h%    n   _  $ (     $  ' "  $   y E'   E % E  'd b E%  ' E  z ™   "    E% b "' %" h E  + 'k % C " k  ' "%  ' C h ≡ (−1)(n−1)/2 & (  # E ' E   n ≡ pi Q (mod q) Q ≡ 1 (mod q) n pi = qs + 1 > 2q + 1 b ™ # ? %  $  k "   $ B ' $  " E'    "` C %    ` $ B %  (   %y C h   E  #       ( s ( ' " Rl  S  h ™   t | pimi −1 (pi − 1)  ™ &h     b$ % " j  ' E  $    ' %   " ™ #  n = qk R + 1 > 1 %  " (  "    d ' E  h r $ # d ( Ej    C #%   ‰  V n=qR+1>1 R < 4(q + 1) ≡ 1 (mod n) a(n−1)/q = 6 1 (mod n) n n ‰   h'   _  dc $ "  } { 3 k 2 R+1    d m ! " $ £ hy " n = pi Q " ™  E a  ( % l  pi − 1 = q k r    # & %  E  #   E% " z  $      " E # " b# %$  ™ $ b E% "'  h%  " y " R a(n−1)/q ≡ 6 1 (mod n) p = qk r + 1 ' h  j    " k  ' $  C h % " ™ #  (  #   ` i    h& E £ c h  $    j "%  ' C h b " # k E E'    " ' dj  '  "  k h     b" $ — (a(n−1)/q − 1, n) = 1 % $ A ™ m "  $     " #     ™ (    C  s E (  E " €   # ™       3(n−1)/2 ≡ '  (   # 3(n−1)/2 ≡ −1 (mod n). " ™ #   &h  {  z   %$  ' h  h'    ™ C  $ "  (  *  % " k E  E l i Z∗pmi ( d '   $  pi ≡ 1 (mod q) t > 2q + 1 Q # s ‡ €‹ =  D` b E%   ™ "  $ b# "'  "  E € R < 2 k 3 < 2k + 1  u ™ ƒ‘ “ a(n−1)/2 6≡ 1 (mod n), "  E # ‹~ ‰ “ ‹ ( d    h b " h y  p2 > (F + 1)2 > R(F + 1) > RF + 1 > n.   ~ †‹ ? € ˆ   "` E E c  ' E % " n−1 E    &    u $ c a " 5 h k C #% ™ # h a  ' a " ™ € ™ — œ ‡ e e , ‹  ~  $ $  y  # u (n − 1)/q m | (p − 1)  a=3 q=2 3(n−1)/2 6= 1 (mod n)   s { Ž‡ € ˆ Ž‰ { “ ‹ ~ ‹ €‡ “ { ( " R < 2k $ — ˜ ˜ } Ž > { {—  { ™ % dc E " #  q h   { ™ & {‡ ˜“ ˆ Œ u   R> n = FR + 1 > 1 0  ˜ “ { } Ž > €‡ Ž ~ F 6p−1 ' l  { ‡ √ % " j   ‘ ‰ p6 C b " '  {— n ' $   3 % C  Œ qk | m p − 1 = qk r   2 ≡ −1 (mod Fn ).  3 an−1 ≡ n = pi Q > (1 + 2q)2 = q · 4(q + 1) + 1 > qR + 1.     1     4/  1  2              / 1/            1/  - ,+ -  p n   z h (d, (p − 1)/d) = 1  ™ z   z     %   C ` E  '  w ™ ™ } †€ ‘ Ž { ‡ € “ €Œ { • E #  &   ? ˜ ‘  ‹ ‰‡ “ € ˆ › >  { {‡ Œ { ˆ Œ ˜ { ˆ Ž ‘ ‰ Ž€ ‘ } ‹ ‘ {— ‘ ˆ ™ " E % E k  “ ˆ ϕ(d) (p − 1), d {— €Œ ƒ‘ “ ~ { Ž‡ { “œŒ { ‡ ‰ { Ž‡ †‹ † ˜ ‹ €‡ “ { } Ž > Ž{ ‡ ‹ Ž€ ‘   % b ` h Ca $  ™ œ ‡      $ j 8  "   " 'd d " 'k % C   &h  % ‹  ~ S  $ b# % %"  h`  " ?  ‰ € { ‡ {‹  } † €  € ƒ ‰ ƒ ‘  { „  { “ ‰‹ ƒ T &  C ϕ(k) = ϕ(d) #% $ $ "` ' C i ˜ † € ƒ ‰  } z  n $ v  d $  k | (p−1)/d X   $  kj b %  ' "  d ( ( s (  ˆ ™ ‡ ƒ‡ z  $ u  * b "C   $ u b % '  " E  ' E  " $ *$ b "C ' " b$ % " j   % k C ` E  (  * w ‰ € {  €‡ ƒ ‰ “ ‰ { ™ ‡ ™ ™ { {— ‡ { †€    (  " h'  € { ‡ ‹{  } ? ?  † † { “ € • {  { {‡ € Œ  ‰  } Ž‰ €‡ †€ ‰ “‘ ™   $   C d % E   " h m  E E "  " 'd# d E # " h'  kb "% 'k k " C h m ( $        E % $ # % C h "  E   % $ % C h dc "  c b  E%   ` g – ™ E    c b %  E % k h h E a % '    $      '$ % $ 'd#  a E " h'  d ‘ “ { { ‡ ‹ ‡ {‹ € { ~ “ € • €‡ Ž ~ ‡ €‹ ‹~ ‰ “ ‹  > “ { œ ‡  ‹  ~ € ˆ } Ž > ?  S }–  > ‘ {Œ “‘ ‰‹ ƒ ˜“ € ‰‡ “ € ˆ { {— ‡ {‹  } { {— „ “’ ˜“ ˆ {    = ™ ™   ( k E &" %E    u  d z    $   $  %  k  " % k' k E % $ # E E hj " # kb " h m C " #  " ( ( $        Ej  h    % C E %  " h'  d % E  k " % k' ™ z  "   $ $ " C #% d E " # d b E%       $ $    k " % 'k k  % k Cy h%  _ %  ( % k' k y     $ E &" %E    u  d "  ' % C '  E  b  %$ C h C  h %  $ # b " # $  z h%  $ $   $ $  C ' " ( (   C ™  &  $ _   E'  E " k  ' " u `  "%  ' C  #   $  E C #%    c  C b " E " k ' b " ™ r ™ z  E h h $      $    " ` k E E'    j  u     h&   C #% E E &" %E  u  d "  E%   C % $ $    $ j " a % '  E & d E C %#  c  %  $ # dc ™ % ( $ "   j  C  g ` B m ™ ( z    `  Ri   h      E & " %& d "    4  m d!m $ % ' % C  C ( & 24 , B % C #% '" b % "  '" c% $   $      $ # %dc  ' k E D $     " ™  k     E ' E C  & E " h'   E k  k " b  ™ (  B "      "  ™  E% '"  ( ™     $     " C #% E E 'h  ( z " ™ " y $ £  (  # E m1 m2 < F n > F3 m1 + m 2 > F F > m1 m2 > m1 (F − m2 ) > F − 1 m1 = F − 1 m 2 = 1 n = F3 + 1 m1 + m 2 < F m1 m2 = x m 1 + m 2 = y m 1 m2 m2 − ym + x = 0    S   S ( VX  = q  ' '  &h  s ( ( z j  'd E E   E E % ` , ¥ ¤¥ ,¥  fv s d m ! _ £ & E  $  y $ ¥ ¥¤ , " h E " " "     $  ( & ¤ % k  " ™ #  "  (      k " h c  m  %  n = 2RF + 1 = (m1 F + 1)(m2 F + 1) '"  ϕ(k)ϕ(d) = ϕ(d) b (  b$ % " j   l ( "   $   E E  "   %a "` % C %  h     y      y d | (p − 1) % k | (p−1)/d X " | (p−1)  ϕ(d∗ ) = $ ' " # '  E B ™   $ y   $   $ %  $ #  E  "   'd b E # E k "   m 'd ( ( ( z         $  ` f  m (       b "C 4 ,¥ v $ u % %" h dc $ "  C c' h % b _   ' % y  $ # dc $ "     & " %& '   £ $ E ' "  $ s       w % a " " E h Cy '  E " h E " E E'  " $ # " ' $ %  $ # % ™ C   " u ' E     b "  " a E E   $ " ™ " * $ n    ™   ™ # T> '" C #% 2  E k | (p−1)/d X % X E > p  d | d∗    E "  a %  h  $ B " ™ # C #%   "   x ∈ Z∗p 'd T= ' √ F> 3 n ϕ(x) ( ,     $ > "C p > (2F + 1) > (2R + 1)(2F + 1) > 2RF + 1 = n. " ? † † € ™ (   %y C h  ™ ‰ ™ € { 2 E'  ‰ g `  ‰‹ ƒ ˜Ž‰ y 2 − 4x   { ™ †‡ { r # E % $ k   “œ € m  #   & " $ “  C $ a l R  ( E h a ' C "  pF +1 “ ‹ Ž‰’ { “ ‹ ~ ‡ ’ Ž{ ˜    & ' " ' E  $  l ‰ Œ = n ‡ ? 2R=xF +y ‘ ˆ Ž Ž{ C F ‘ Œ † r "b %$  k h `  ` “ ‹ q F an−1 ≡ 1 (mod n) (a(n−1)/q − 1, n) = 1 p n p = mF + 1 √ F> n F R “ { } ‹ €‡ Ž“ (  (   d E √ 3 &  ˜ ‡ { ˆ ~ ™ " g  "j    E  # " # F> ( h a  % k h ,  €‡ ˜Ž“ ‹ Ž€ ‘  Ej    % $ √ p=mF +1> n ' $ %   ˜€ ‰  h  %   h p "  ‰ ™ n F R a x>0 06y 1 E'  E k &  œ ‡ q ‹  ~  # Cy √ F> n $ ( ™  S '    F " k% E ‰ “‘ ‰‹ ƒ ‰ h%  _  2  ~ { Ž  ‘ €  † ( & ¤ 4 " &h   n−1 ' €  4 ,  s  a 'd " b$ %  ? 2 y − 4x { “ € ˆ €  u √ p6 n p > 2F + 1 % " { “ ‰‹ ' " F | (p − 1)  $ j  ‡ {‹  } } F # %  l  ƒ ‰ a k   n %" h R n6F 3 m 1 > m2 . 2R = m1 m2 F + m1 + m2 .  (d, (p − 1)/d) = 1. ϕ(kd) > p−1 , d    1     4/  1  2              / 1/            1/  - ,+ -   $  " &  $ $`  % ™ "  & z     &h  z $ $  a % C d E  Ej ' k ™     d "   z   "  E a g      C h "      & "  w ( z "b $    $  %  ,  $ ¤ % by   d " "  ' %$   "j  l  (  f % k % z  %  $  $ # a "  *   $    $    $ ¤ v u  % %   E m " " by   d " "   ' (  (   w E  d     "` Ej    h&   E & k k E c     ' k E E  hj (  * z      b E # k $  " ' dj ™    $     k h c    '$  % $ # d "  E k E%  h d , u m  w E ™ E (  "  y  $  % ' % C % k  ' "%  ' C h   "     $ "  '" k   " k% E  'd & D E`  d k  E   d " (  ™ ™  $ s $ "  "  d m "  ™ # ™ ( $ " %    $ # k " % k $    $  & E C #% % k h  %  $ # d ` ( z $   E  "  $ Ca k  i x   $   $ $ &   # ! "  ' % $  # "   &   m     C$ " " %& &  ( (  j    E a %  h " k h 'd   ' % f x   $   %  $ # E C #%  `  m d B &  % t ∈ (2m−2 /F, 2m−1 /F − sm) ` z  ™    $  ( ' "  E'  k C      $     %  b " a %   a E &h z %  " $  j  ( ' ' $  ™ E " ' $ ™ $ d " "  'k % C $  & E # "  " $ h  h k  E   " & ¤ , $ " k% E  'd " ' %  d (   "  ` ` $ " %& d ' E  C$    Cy h%  %$  a % C #% '$ ™ %  z      $  j by  %  $ # %     j " %   by   $ C$  E    "  & "  k  "    ( &  ¤ x _ z ' " E    j (   $ ' " h % $ $ #  E'     Ej      $  by   E E h   a    kj h  d #  E &  "  `     " 'd  '  m  E  k  E%  h dc E   $ ™ "     s % ™ " ( & $  , g x %    $  $ u  b ` ( Cy h%  '$ "  "C  $   $ "  $ "  E C #% " E " E  d b E% '" %$ "` $  $  h ( d * # dc E h k  j   "  ' ' " %&   *  %  $ # %  z ` z    " " D C kj b %  $ ™ %  $ # dc ' E $ $ "  '   dc $ "   j C h  j  $ d "  $ "  " "    E     Ž€ € ƒ‘ “ ~{    (  † } ‰› “œ { „ { €› ‘ { ƒ ‡ ‘ ‡ {‹ ˆ   ‹ } ‰~ ‡ {‹ ‰   ‡    v > € ˜{ †  { € ‡ › ˜Ž‰ { “ ‹ ~ }   * TX (  U Ž€  ‰ €Œ { •– €   ‰  Ž€ ‡ €‹ ƒ ‘ Ž Œ   &   E " %&  d  % % * E E  E m  u ‰~ ƒ ‰ “ a % h m  $ #     ™ $  "   u c %& ™  k C #% $  "  j m ( %  % $  Ch    " D  $ # dc " $   h  C     dc  '  % k h d " $ "      B s F ' $ h k " k% E  'd ' (   k h c h  $   " %& 'd# $     c bD %  m ( &h 1/3  m % "b  %$ " %& `  k % (  %  '$   ™   h a  E  E B & k E B >0 E ` d $ "   "j  d E E hb h  " d!m $ b "    " `  % C dh ( ( & , 4 4 ,  h  E  ' 1/2 " '     $  h d C " k   m ` r ' " $  ™ " % $ $ y  m d E 2εm < F < 2cεm ε w     "  C (  C  h   Cy ( r ( " %  $ #   #`  $    " E '   E ( ' "  $ $  E'  E Ca E     " C C     h   % '  j   "  &  ™  E z %  m E k %" h "   C % k k E   $   E f u '  z    j    j  C   b "' b %  $ C % % '  " w C #%     $ ' E   c '    $ $ ` j   ` k   j     " E "    ' $  " j  %  $ # c ' % k ™ h   $ $  &    $    k h  "  " b E%  ™ #C n " E  $ E C $  h   k' % k % $  d B ™ $  E'   E # `  E   # k "       "j    n−1   k "  Cy  $  E   "'  j  # k " % k' k k E d E    `  m h  E m 0 k " #         E C #%  "  'h E b % % $   $ A   E E z # "  ™ (  & b    'd E " h c b E  % " $ % '  ¤ % $ #   s  s X 1 ϕ(F ) X 1 1− >1− = , F q q j j=1 j=1 j k% k ™ 'd    b "  C " C h m %  $ # d E%  " % $  E   ( %  , q1 , . . . , qs F = q1k1 . . . qsks x y R=R(x, y) ‘ { ˆ Œ €‡ ˆ ~ ‘Ž  ™ ˜ ‘ {  {‹ € {   – ‘ „ Ž > {  ƒ‘ “ ~ ‹ { ƒ‡ { {— ‡ œ ‡ {‹  ‡ ( z  $   y  " ' C % $  c  E E %  $ # dc "  j     C  h    E & u †€ † € “ Ž € ‰ Ž , (   ™ " ? 4 4 , u B m " %& d  ` d m $   %  %  a % h  C % $  c ( & a ∈ Z∗n ϕ(F )/F 'd ( % $ # d " " $ $ ≡ 1 (mod n) a(n−1)/qj ≡ 1 (mod n) a F  n n a ∈ Z∗n j  ‘  € ˆ — ‰  œ ‡  ‹  ~ S   V ˆ ™ {  {  Ž€ ‘ {— “‘ ‰‹ ƒ € > ‡ ‹{ } ‰ € {‹ ‡ }   € ƒ > ‰ “   T  U S [ ( XV  :q  ' ' F = q1k1 . . . qsks F > R ( $  h . . . , qs "   (2R, F ) = 1 n = 2F R + 1 q 1 , . . . , qs P = {n = n0 + ia : n0 = ta + 1, a = 2F, 0 6 i 6 s}. A    1     4/  1  2        7      / 1/            1/  - ,+ - '"  b ™ E #  " ™ > „ Ÿ‰ € “ – € ˆ ›  { ( z b % '   %  ` s   E h  $ a c 'E k " " ! "  &  %  $ #  Ej C  c   m z  $  $  # k d "  $ E " c b %  CE E ' `        1    k " ™   E%  $ 'd# dc E%  ™ (  $  ` r E'  E    j & %  d m !  ' C E E'  $ E _    $          $  h c k% a " " ' dc  ` , 4 4 ( & 5 ( ™ E E j B m £ h z a  "% '  E   $    j &  $    "    by    & b E% E   % k E  & C  <   Cy d!m $ " '  $   $     'D     $ ™ E (  z  ' E  'D $ j  z (* * %          .     - 9              9    .   / / & %  z   j 42 , m $       " i d     &  c  ' d E h E % ` d m %  $ # dc "  b " k  E 4 E  h%  $ u  " '$ $ & E E'    & E   $  ( & ™  $   & E " D   (  $   E E  z $   $ y $ #  d "    C h h k h  E % k " % k' ™ k E " j   ' $  C E  " E % '"   E d  m k #   " #       $   %  $ # ' E d E '   " y   j E  ™ # ™   j %  $ # b h %   $ # dc $ "  ( z $ b % "  d E   $  E D  $ ' k " % k' B &  k %  $ # dc "  % k ™ h $ $ ' y '$ d "  k " % k' % $  k '    $   k " 'E dc E " j ' $  c '   $ $ E h'     % , " B  m ( C #% d E "  ` $` $  # " ™ #b z  " 'h &   ™   h  " q = 2 k = 2m ™   f4 , m      ¥ (      " m  c ' ( & %  %   z ` '  " d   e , y   ™ ? ˆ ‘ {— ˆ Œ ˆ ‘ {— ‡ { “œŒ { ‡ ‰ ‘ {— ‡ € { ‡ {‹  } { “ ‰‹ & c   E 4¥ Ln−2 ≡ 0 (mod n)  ( & ™   " b E%    E'   % #    r d m !  " C   Cy  "  Cy E E h {‡ { ‹ †‰  € ˆ ™ — z %  $ # (     E'   dc " j  E h  (   %y C h  ' E C E  " h'       &h  s $ y  b %    "  † † { ‘ „  {  > ‡ €   ~€ Œ ‘ € “ € ˆ €  {} œ ‡ {‹  “œ € ‡ œ ‡     y    ‹  ~ (  *  S   V & % ™  %  $ # " # $ Ž ‘ { ˆ € “ {‹ } ‰ { “ ‰‹ $ "  (  * ƒ $   % b % " d "  b " d m " a { €  €‡ ƒ €  E n  }  '$ , m  " m   ™ . hC  Cy  "   Mp #% y  (   m  h  (  ™   E E%   h  (n + 1) a !  $ d %  '  "   "C   E  $ 9       %  > ‡  & "  ™ E    " b "C $ u  *   # %d    " ™ z # " h'  k $   " % k' k E " % ™ #   $  $ y  'h %   $ # k " ' dj E &h  $ "   ™ b " 'h &   (  * n   n j "  $   $   a  h  E D ™ ' ˆ  $ E  " " ™ #b    "j   d E %# j 'd# d E (  ` ™ z y " " 'k  " $   '$ h % $ $ " #  j  %$  k      " E " j ' $  ( k  "  $   j     k E # " # %  ( %  $   $  `  $   E E  %  $    E E %  $ # % k h d " "   " `  Cy h z      ¢ m E k " $ j    $ $   $   $ % k " % k' k h c h & " C #% d E " # d E " ' $   %  d  % $    " E E h   &  h  dc " ' d h % $ # `   g ? ' S  T   S TU  q  h       k %  E  E " j  ' $  h&  ™  C #% '$ d  E   d "  " ™  z       $ d '   dj E  "  k " $ k E " d h " D 'd d E E " $ ™ ™ $ v  $ $ $ y    j  %  $ #   E a %   E d E E' E d " " k "  " # n2 +1 n2 ±n−1 ( @ q      j   $   j  E   E a % E # " b # "' b %  $ E p ( VX  ™    " ( % " a E   n+1  $ %   " C % "    h   k ' h   " E  k $   " b E% "' €   ~€ Œ ‹ ‡ Ž‰ ‡ †€’ Lm+1 = L2m − 2, E dc  $ # & E B %    " E z $ "` '  h%  ˜ ’ € ˆ ˜“ €  & `   n " $ "   # c 'D  h%   $  (  ' k "   j h'   p Pp =Mp (Mp − 1)  `  %          z h%   $ ' $  " & y  & E " $ ' "  C E    %   "  Mn = 2 n − 1 %& d  E  j       E  ™ ' " " by  z # & %  ™     $ y  $ k " ' {} ‰ “‘ ‰‹ ƒ ‰ € €} ‡  L0 = 4, ' h'  j  dj     by  $ $ 2r = a +       "   $  { – % ™ b E  h '    h ™ "  dj E   C  {Lm } E ' "     E { {—  €‡ ƒ ‰    "     ™ ‰ ‡ ‹{  “œ € S ( 'h ` h i E Mn " $   #   { 'h Ž{ { € Ž $    % $ " b E%  Lm = V2k /2 & k E h  € ‰ ? ‘Œ ‰ ˆ Š b  $ $ #  "'  †‰ ‡Ž Mn   j U(n+1)/r 6≡ 0 (mod n), a %  ™  "  > &   k > 0. %& `   ƒ‡ ‡ {‹  } { ? { > € “ € ˆ €  ™ bE E E  # & %    " '$ E c b   h%  $  Uk+2 = pUk+1 − qUk , V k+2 = pVk+1 − qVk , k > 0. d z ™ ‰ q   ‘Œ ‡ ‰ p Cy   " %  “‘ ‰‹ {— „ “’ ƒ  ‰ “ € $   " b E% "'   E d   d ‘ ˜‰    p2 − 4q)/2 E a ' "  ™ “’ ˜“ ˆ € %  %   h%  "% E E'   $ $ { ˆ € “ € d E xp− px + q = 0 r = (p + p2 − 4q)/2 2 ™ # z   Cy ˆ n ™ (n − 1) b "'  j E = > ‰ “ " {} k Cy h%  _ & j h'   k $ 'd# c y  E  E l p  b % †~{ ‡ ‹{  ‹ { ‰  {Uk } # & % ? ‰‹ ƒ › >  { ™ ( $ V 2k = V k2 − 2q k ,  { †} } € “ ‰‹  " $ ‡{ “‘ (  ) '    % ™  q   { ‰ ‘Œ ƒ { ™ ‡ € Œ  #  n  ™ " h'  j k ' rk =(Vk +Uk h  $  €‡ ƒ ‡ € ’Ž {  €‡ ƒ € ‰‹ ƒ E m    #  n by    " ' p E  $ " Ž > b E%  ˜“ ˆ a b p 2rn = a − b p2 − 4q (mod n)  {Uk } Un+1 ≡ 0 (mod n)  ~ ‡ € { {  "` % $  u %  {‹ } {  (n − 1) (n + 1) (n + 1) p2 −4q " E a  † >   ™ ‡ € { œ ‡ ‹  ~ q r & E Un+1 ≡ 0 (mod n),  # '"  "' h%   S p q E # & ƒ ‡ €‹ ‡ {‹   $ ‡ {‹  } ‰ “ b   y  U1 = 1, V 1 = p,    ™ b % ‰ =  =  E%  r {Uk } {Vk } % E %  } ‰ “ ‹ c E ‹  U2k = Uk Vk , z {Vk }  ‹~ œ ‡ ‹  8 n n>1 n+1 ‡ ‘ ˆ Ž ‘ Œ ‹ “‘  ‰ k E n a  A ˜ €‡ ~ S  ?  p = 1 q = −1 E   " € {  S  " B p2 − 4q (mod n) n c  &   ? ‰‹ ƒ   "' U0 = 0, V 0 = 2,   s ( h "   ˜Ž“ € ˜“  Cy E q ( z (n − 1) $ ‡ {‹ ˜   V ‡ ‹ p "   } € ‰‡ “ € ˆ r b "   { ƒ‡ p2 − 4q E% k E  E l n  y  { ‡ p   d +b h%   $ (n − 1) (n + 1) 0 6 m < n. k    1     4/  1  2           5          /  5  41 2   1   - ,+ - / 3 & & @ ' # F # I H '$ I F F . A <1 $0 3   . ' &$ 3  = < H - - '$ * ' 3 / & & @ ' # F # I = < H  I H , %(  3 *  C   # & .    F #/ ? F %  & ' # 3  $  0 & 3  @  & F I .  8 - - '$ I H F %(  F ? &   * 7 $( ? 3 *  # & .  . $0 3   . ' 77      ,  , ,     7 H & F + , 7   ,  7 ,7 ,        E  /I = I H # < C 256 1 000 10 000 100 000 1000 000 10 000 000 100 000 000 dc  $  54 168 1 229 9 592 78 498 664 579 5 761 455 7              , , ,, ,7 7 ,   $  $    $ y C π(C) % k h c '$      $      d  E   h&  ™  " E  ' Ÿ E  E   ' '$   B1 , m &  4 B1 , ; = c bD % % k h  m j   $  z    $  D " h c   E ' E ' ™  E  a E ' E   # "    B1 ,       %     E  ' Ÿ E%  h dc E   " %&  E E   k " `  m m %  B1 , ?  .(  $ /       %  & E D & E E h ( (  j  2 m  = / & 0  * 4 "  j         E % E  'd b " ' "  ' E  C$    h c E % $ #        % . .  4 m  @   %  E  k E h  a c E % k h " ™ #b `    " 'h & k ( % %"  h & b E% ' *  $  $ $ y       & '  k E h  a c E & D  & '   b % "  E " k " '  # "   A  A E  ?   & + $@    , ,7 ,7 ? ( $ / ($ & $@  @               , B1 D C B1 , ? .(   $ % $ /  E            4 z    j      $  j    E  & " #   "    ' " %& % E   " ™ #  "  .   5<        $ # %d   C h h k h E k E%  h % k h ( % *>  +  ? '3 &      )       1    )          1   )  1 =    &(                  ™  4 &  5<  / & ' : ; 7 7 5<  ' 9 % *8     %  $ # d $ "  E k E%  h % k h ,   7/ 56 &  ( &                       / 1            / 1           / 1  E %#  ' k $  " '     E  " %&  & E E h % k h ` . . ($ $, '& )  / -  32 &     1 4 $       %  $ # % k %" h & b E% '  " E & '  k E h  a c Eb " E a % . . 7   _ $, ($         7   7    / -  1 *)  +  (   % ( '& $#    !"       , ,                -     , , , ,7 , 7  , , , , 7 7 7 , , , , , , , , , 7 , ,, 77   ,   , , , 7 7   , , ,, , ' ™ #    % m (  j  $ $  $    E k " %#  $ ' C " %&  &  b" " E a % #  ™ %  $ # dc "  (  k h    j  $  $ E %  $      $ # %d  ' E d $`    $ d E c z  c   '$  ™ E h ™ $   "  E % m m w  $ # k $ b  "  "  "  h c E " '"  "  E%  h k  ™ E  $ # d "  ' E b % " k " % k'  E " $  E  $    C k               ,  , , , , , , 7 , , , 7 , 7 7 , , , , , 7 7 , , , , 7 7 7 77 , , , , , , , , , , , 7           ` $  " a  b "% k' "  $ $  $ C % B  m j  % & E a  " EC h  "` " ™ b ( #  hj c k h c   '$  ™ E%  $ #  $   $   $ EC h " k  " % k' `  k m  Ca " ™ #     $`  $    j    $  $ dc "  c '   $ b$  "  " E  h c ™ E d E " C& m h _ ( $       $  j    b " % E  'd  a E ' E "  & " ™ #  bD % b % " E kb $   "j  m  ,        " a ™ b " % E  'd  h c E d " ™  k E%   h`       % $ # m    $   $ " EC h ' " h "  j  E ' "    $`  %  $ # c bD % % k ™ h d E " E h m _ (   k h c   '$  %  $ # d " ™ E             (  ) , , ,   z  %&   & E E h   E % E  'd  u +     j   $  d  a E ' ' E % $ #   E%  h b E%      5 ,7          /  5  41 2    1 "'    - ,+   h%  '$ ' 1  *  + 5  4/  1  2      - $ >   $ + +5 9  $D $  85 3 & '( . 7 3@ 8 7 $ ' k "  #% y  j n z  E%  h  >  , C B1 D  $ /    % .(   ?          log2 n n " d " E " E 3 * # & .          n n $     ` " $0 3   .  7 O(log n) √    E  F    n  /I    n n % #     √ √ $  (       7 , , ,, , ,  n  , *      − − − − − − − − − − − −  3 * # & .  . H             < G F  = .  7 77    , 7 , 7 7 7 , , 7 7 , , 77 ,7 , 7 , , , , 7 7 ,7 , , , , , , , , , , , , , 7 7 7 ,7      '3 1  ;&  , ,   Pp  F $0 3   - & J / - & -   .& -    − − − −  H -  - & ? %(  * 7     , ,7  ,    − − − − = < 7 ,  7 7 K K Mp  ,  ,     7     ,   , K K p n √ √ O(π( n) log2 n) = O( n log n) √ O( n log2 n) " ™ # k'   log(1 − x) < −x 0 ‰ ‰  Œ{ „ Ž – –  h   d E " j $ ' $  k " %& ¢ xi = #  ~ ‡ †€ € “ € Ž ‹ { ƒ‡ { {— > {  ƒ‘ “ ~ ‹ ˜“ z j  C b %   $ B $ j, k 06j ƒ ‰ “ ‘ {  ‘ {} } ‡ ˆ ~ „ ~ € ‘ †  Œ{ „ & p0 +2k rs j=2 −1 d=(xj −xk , n) 1 Ž λ√ >0 l = 2λn d " C # pnl =   j b$ % "   ›~ Ž€ ‹ (xj −xk , n) !   &  %  k h c  u l+1 ρ n l2 l(l + 1) <− = −λ. 2n 2n x0 , x 1 , . . . xj 6≡ xk z        ` C #%      #`  ' E $ $  " " h ' c Ÿ E%  h dc E   " %& 'h  " B  m    1     4/  1  2     7       5 7          /  5  41 2   1   - ,+ -  j   $ z x y   k $ " ( " %&   & %  z   m h z % h    " %  ` u (  %  $ # dc $ "  'dc  z #  "   E    "      j      d h ( %" h d   $ "    b " a %  g %  $ # %  ™ " C   h m " %& " h ' E  " %& d E E h %  $        z '  $ $ E k  E h  a c bE " E a % " ™ # "   " 'd C    " j      ( ' E  "       ™ $   b " a %  "C  h%  % $ # (      Ej  h   s z  & bD     E  ™ √ z = b 4 nc + 1 y = z 2 √ O( 4 n log4 n) k $ k E   z " "     $     %"   $  " d  % $ ` # % k h % k l z z E       $ b " E a % C$    " ( % $ #  kj h E % E $ # & kj h  u  $    % E k " k% E  'd  " b " " m  k E%   h`     ( $  ' E  "        & ' " b " E a % $ z ¢ C c' h l k E h a c £ ( E  ' E %     $ # dc kj h  C   " u O(log2 t) %k E  ' `  # $  "   h # dc k d E E (   z < b nc + 1 'd  " %   b  E%      %"  " z % %" C ' " $ "  E (    $ b %  ™ 2 "   h "`  x c b  E%  k E%   ' " ™ #   h  ¢ 2 dc %&  h dc $  $ E "    " ' f k $ y b"  & "   “‘ ‰‹ ƒ “œ € ‰‡ ( z – $  $ E " %&    b " E a % k E #  ' %  $ # %dc  k E h  a c E l l ¢ £ D ' "     ‰ ‘ ‘  € ˆ ‘ { œ “’ {— „  ˆ ˜“ ˆ ‘ {— ‡ „ > €‡ †{ ? ¢ ( $   ' E  "      (     "`  Cy h%  E E' $ E E  £ ( z    " %& k $   " k% E $   & '  b " E a % C$  "  j      d E%   'd E h & h a  % k h & # y  $ & E "  C " 'd    % k %" h     & $ "   & b E%  E k E h   a c E % k h  u $  $  $ ` ( # E $ c a  $ $   % " a E dc E %E ' " # ' b %    $   "  k ` ` ' E     E%    "  x u & d E E'  E   " h k " % k' k  E "     A k% E  ™ " * h % % " %&    V z j  'd b    "`  E # E  E%  $ d# B  $ S T T S X  S ( S U U V X  Ut  q 8  ( $ b " E $ $   u  ' "  E     k E h  a c bE " E a % C   " ? ™ z y  $ $ j   $  y   a %    "  $ $  "  E%  h   E a CE "  C " 'd b h € ™  † ˜ Ž ‘  ˜“ € ‰‡ “ € ˆ { {— ( $    j  j  k E # E b " E E # " " h E ‰ ƒ ‰ “ Ž€ ‰‡ ˆ Š { › Ž{‹ €  } €      ' " $ `  B # f (j) mod t    E  m *    h m " k%   √ 4 "  % k (  '      j h % %   E d E u E " dc $ & "  ( $ " E a % " (x−1), . . . , (x−z) O(z log2 z log2 t) j    $ "  c bD %    " ` u h a  , 1÷2 ™ h   k E    ¤¢   'd  E #  E a 'd ' ™ œ ‡  C$  E  ™ † ˆ  $    "  " %  $ # %dc  k E a CE  k E a %   ™ # (   b " k E  – ˆ Ž‰ ‰  €‡  €‡ ˆ ‘  €  ‘  “‘ “ {  { †€‡ { ƒ‡ { Ž‡ { €— ˜{ ‡ {‹ ™ ‹ ™ { ƒ‡ “‘ ‰‹ ƒ { {—  “œ € ‰‡ { “ { } { {— „ ’“ ˜“ ˆ ˜ ( z   $     %  'd  h    c E   E % E  'd &     c  # ` ! "  > { ‹ œ ‡ ‹{  ‡ ˜{  Ž€ „  œ ‡  ‹  ~ S   V ?  ‘ ‡  ‘ ‡ ‹ { Œ €‡ Ž ~ ‡ €‹ ~ { “ ‰‹ ƒ       $  s Ej  € { d h (  Ž ‘ ‡ {‹ ‹ # ™  # E %#  ' Ca k $  " '  E   u m ` ( ™ D C #% h & "    j    $  d %E bh " b E% " $  ™ " d %E bh  " b E% " ( ( $   $    k $   " C #%  & " h "  " %&   & '   b " E a % "  u B ™ z     $`     "j  E  " ' ' h%     $  h c EC " %& C '   m ™     `  $`    E  " ' " ' E%  # & E  E j h'            1  2    `  z     ' E%  # & E  E j h'      `    5 7          /  5  41   - ,+   1    4/  1  2      n m -  h E b E% "' h%  $  b C ' h%  $ k $    "C  " C " %& m  z  $  j   C ' " %   ™    s 7 z/2  " %& m  E  (  w  "  $ u %  – – € ˆ “ { ‹  ~ S  O(z log2 z log2 t) " $  ` dc b E% a h c   w "  $ % k Ch   " 2 log z O(z log t log z) n %    h a  m " ( " " z ( " a E $ ? ‰ ‘• € {} › log t S    c  E %   k l %     '$ E  a %  C   C  & _  > ˆ    V ‘ Œ‘ ‡ i−1 $  `  E E  m $ C j$     & '  k ™ n     h %   E C #%   $ # % k %"  h & ( ' ƒ ‰ Ž{ ‡ {‹  }– ‰ ˜‰ ‡ C log Xz # h Q S   XV S (  f  w   j k m m $  "   " l  “œ ‘ z/4 %dc    E  ' " h%  j$ k $  "  z "   E%  h  +    $ $ &  j b$ % "   O(log2 t)   $  k " %  " (t, y!)  88  " C h m  % $ #  '  d (t, f (j))   E h  u h k E  bD t=n k' $ B f (x) = ((x − 1)z + 1) . . . ((x − 1)z + z). b    ™   E 'h #  E  ( j #  E  E k E log t k ( ™ (   ™ E  Cy h a y! = (1 · 2 · . . . · z)[(z + 1) · . . . · (2z + 1)] . . . [((z − 1)z + 1) · . . . · z ] = z Y (jz)! = f (1)f (2) . . . f (z), = ((j − 1)z)! j−1   z %  'd % k l &   % k' ( % k %"  h & b  % k % k h%  $ $  j >  e−λ  j   j  m ( % % " $ C  $    $ $ kb "' b t ∈ N k        E b E% E% ' d# B , x d# B  f (j) = ((j − 1)z + 1) . . . ((j − 1)z + z) j = 1, . . . , z (t, y!) E'   E%  D &     % k % (j − 1)z + 1, . . . , (j − 1)z + z (t, f (j)) ™ h '"   ( & f (1), . . . , f (z) (t, f (j)) j = 1, 2, . . . , z  $ # %   h%  " ¤ x %&  λ  # h a  %" %  $ u (  " √ √ O( λ 4 n log3 n) & &  k   $ # E & œ (t, y!) E E d " E % E   h d E $ " 'd b  '    f x  †€ ρ√ √ C λ 4 n log3 n "  $  $ "      E a  " E & (  &h √ O( 4 n log4 n) z ∈ N y = z2 h & "  h d b E%  E E &  n d!m $ ` % E    b$    & D " £  c E n   & '  E  %  O(λ n log3 n) "   $  k E E O(z log2 z log2 t) %& k C b %   $ B √ l+1 4l + 1 z i 2 log 2i 6 z log2 z 2i O(z log t) n x2 −n=y 2 % % $ (  g m  j b2 mod n = k p∈B Y pαp (b) . j "   ™ z $ ™ z C " '  m  " k % % $  $ # ( d    ' B ={p1 , p2 , . . . , ph } p1 , p2 , . . . , ph M h = π(M ) B "  $ a E $ ( dj   E    ` m   "  " k E k ( '  ™ z " " ' h         n  "   " $ E   E'  m m %   $ ™  'k % C c  $ y k  ' "%  ' C h  h E a    k k $  y  #% y  j 4 , 5   & z $ h  j    a c E % k h    "       c " %& dc E k h k   $ E ' c & j  "C  b %  $ % %" ( & e ™ % V 8  S T V X  Ut  =      $  y C ' " E'  " k  ' "%  ' C h  #   %  $  ™  j      j  ™ " %  $ b # "'  "    " % k '  a  "  E%  ' " $   h  $ %  " # √ √ (b knc + i + x), (b knc + i − x) (0, n) √ √ (b knc + i + x)(b knc + i − x) = kn.  % ' " E ' " ' "  E # j      n     %  $ # dc %   " $ # j    k   & & # %dc  ` E  a $  E  $    E%  ' " h  '     ` k  j      (   ™ #  ™   $    c  C C #% '$ "  u ( z j   j   C "   E # E  $   " % k '  " ` m  c k E E # E      &  z  j    $ E # E %dc   " ™ # "' k "  %# y     m   C   " E E a   n  j h "  E 'h # ' "     b$ % " j   l ( c k  B ` m ™  $    k E ' E C  h c  c k C #% c & E " ' " ™ #   $  "   b " E   a m "      % z j   E # E %dc   kn √ (b knc + i)2 − kn = x2 x  %  (  k h c   '$  ™ E √ z $ E `  C b %  '$ %  $ $ " % k' k       B  $  j  h ™ " kb "' b %    '$ E a  E'  c 'E     ` z   j        $ b# % %"  h`  bD %  Eb " h c m z  $   `  h`  bD E  E k " h c E    & "    by   ™ $ Ÿ E `  E%  h dc  E   " % k '  h " d E E % ™ hb %" ? Ž‰ €‡ ˆ ™ Ž { ‡ ‘ ˆ Ž ‘ ‰Œ ‡ ‹{  ‘  € ˆ Ž‰ ‰ †€ Ž †‰ ˜‰ € Ž“ ‘ ‡ ˆ ‹ €  } Ž‰ € ‡ ‹ Ž€‡ ‡{ { ‹ { ‡ ‰ ™ † ‰ “ € ‰‡ {  ‘  †‰ ˜‰ € { “ ‘   ~ †€ € Ž‰ ‡ ‹ Ž€‡ {‡ { m C `     E £ h  E '  " h m    h   " "  %# " ' ™  (   % %" h dc E a $ j     E # E bD % `    " ™ " ( j  a E ' dc E m z   ' % j   $ # bD %   m n0 "  &     ` m  $   d    $  by ` `  Ej  " h h E   k=1 k' b∈N    "  E ` "  h w x2 ≡ y 2 (mod n),  ' £  j   E %  c h " " $ " E " k '   m  E  & h a  % k $ ' " ˆ  ‰ “ ‹ S   V =    "   u † z $  $  b % %"  $ 'd# dc E "  E j    # "   k " % k h   ƒ ‘  {  { {  ‰ ‘Ž  €‡ Ž ~ ‡ €‹ ~{‹ {  €‡ ƒ €  ™ ‡  ˆ ( (   $ j     $  E %#  ' k $  " '     E  " %&  & b " " E a % % ` ` _ (  ' " h'  C c' h  " E 'h ' %  $ #   E%  ' " z ( ( ™ $  $  j   $ j  %" h dc   a E ' c '      h " by " E 'h E k " % k' k m j           % " E E' w C " $ z u  ™ ™     Ÿ E%  h dc  E  C  h "  ` `  E h " %& d E E ™ h m m       u     h " k " % k' k  $ E%    ` £ E " ' 'd  $     '  u  n `  'h ™ C z E E d E E E      " C "  $ (   E D E " $ ( %" h d b E% '  ( %  $  $ # %     " Eb ™ " "   %   $ g (  Ÿ %  $ # & D E C  Cy h%   % $ g   ,  " h'  "      ` ` d % E  ™ " * E t = x2 − n x E   E  d# m ! % # c  "  E  'd $ y " (  E  "      $  k "C  x  %  E  k h $ # dc " $  ' % k l dc $ " m bD % $ j # E %  $      E ™ " "  dc E a k E z k  c bD $ E%   Ej  & %  $ 'd# C " k  " E h  $ % m h k √ √n n j h'   $ # %      $ c  '$   c j  ' ( %   % k h h'  k " % k'  '    k ' i ' k " ™ #b "   m `  $ # d " $   m  ' k   "  k E%  " % k l $ h  b=x−y " & %  b2 mod n  % ™ E bD %  E     bD %  & %  'd#   $ # % n0    $  m ( h bE % %"  g E   '   d E # " h'   " k k = 3, 5, . . . ' & C # ¢ i = 1, . . . , k. d  z ' b %" $ 'd#  h ™ " h % * (  h E a $ "` ' $     $ E h%   $ u C h m √ (b nc + i)2 − n = y 2 .  h E j   ( ™  % % '  &  % (x, √ y) √ b nc + 1, b nc + 2, . . . % $   $ # E " # E (  n + ` "  E h E % E  'd * $ Cy ' " a−b , 2 b = x − y.   B B y= $ #   $   , $  ‹ € n=a·b n = x2 − y 2 dj E C #% ' E  "    ™ b " u + h  {  x 6≡ ±y (mod n) n ™ ™   ( h "  √ b nc + n0 " h' n=a·b a=x+y ™  d % E   i = 1, . . . , k  ' E   %  & E h % k h ti = t mod pi , &   '  ¥ x x "   & h a   p1 , . . . , pk pi | n i = 1, . . . , k √ x b nc + 1 D x  ; %" h d % k l ( & # x $ E C  Cy h%  d m ! k " c E %# , x  " n=x2 −y 2 $ ™ E +`  % g   ' a+b , 2 a = x + y, +  ' % C ( & $  x= * t = x2 − n n  C f $  t "'   $ (   "  p2i ( ptii ) = −1 " k " % k'  * t = x2 − n, b "   ` * $ ¤ x " # n>1 'dh & D `  ti = 0 ti 6= 0 ™ kb   "   $  n " u " ( & p   f x  y '    "'  E a>b>0 x>y>0 ™ " ( & c $ #  " (x + y, n) x2 ≡ y 2 (mod n) (x − y, n) O(n0 log2 n) x 6≡ ±y (mod n).    1     4/  1  2          5 77          /  5  41 2   1   - ,+ - 7 x = b i1 . . . b it , y= p∈B Y $    z E a % m % '   % j  z C %     $ " $ " # E ' ˜ ˜ ‹ €‡ “ { } Ž > { } {  E    u › „ > ’“ ˜“ z (  ™ D & k  Cy h%  $ " ( ™ (  $ z ` 4 , r g  v  D h w  % h       E   l ' ¢  & % z  $ y    j  a E  %  $ # dc $ "   E h'  j   ' k c ' d h% £ # #  # j    (  %  $ # %dc  % $   % ' " E ' ™ $       bD  E E % k %" h k E h   a c E h "  & E E bh " E a h E " # h  m ™ E $       d  E Ca E k   E C #%  % k h CE C `  C #%  d   j     z    k k ' "  ™  b E% "'  h%  $  d  k  E%  ' k b " E k ' C  " k _  (  E E a  C " ( " h c  '$   $ ' " # u & z       ' " " a  h k ` `  %  ™ $  %  $ # % " #  "   ™        E ' E C " ' E " $ *$ x2 ≡ a 2      E D E    "   E D E " $ (  $    h b E # kb %" k' k C " C  h m % (    % dc E " j   $ ' $  E % $ # & bD % b E # " d  " $ z $ $ #  z   $  $   " E %E k " k% E  'd   ` z  ' "   g m j   $ %   ™  " * z       r b " D   " h m C h ™ E & " (  ) d b E% '    d C %#  ™ E %        $ # " " C "  h m C % h m C  $ # h a      a E  "b " h    "  $  $ %    z   b   g m m m $ %  $ # % ( dj   E  " ` g m      " ™ #   " E 'd m   $  k E ' E "   " # ™ " √ n 2 "  E " k ' k x  $  "   dc m %  $ #  †€ { Ž  ‘ h w  % h (  j m  $ h %& ' " $ # ' E  E # j  ™ ( " b j  E a  ,    b j h'  E & E   & % ™ # k & D E % 'd    ' E a % 4 fe , i '  $ 1 M≈ ( B " $ k   " 'd  "% C j "  $ ` k " k% E  'd ™ % $ # $ $    ¢ $    'd   " %k ' E E'  " $ C E Rl $ " %& b "  C h "  m ™    %y C h  " E h  ¤      j    '  "  d E E C #%  ™  " '  d E #  '  a h   &  "   E h'    u = (x + y, n),  ` &  r    `    u  ' " E'    %    "j     1/2 $   $ ‰  u→∞ k E C #%  C #% }  % E  E  '  "  k k z " % $ ` ` j    E a %     E & C C h   k E a g z    ( ( z   j     j   b " ' & %  & "  %      "j  " '  C % $ # C h a  ' "  $ _ ` 2 u x $    b E% '    " E E h E ™ " " E % (  )   ` ™    b " '  "  "  " " % $ g x ≡ ±y (mod n) z E   C E %# m   Ψ x, x1/u = x · u−u(1+o(1)) .  ™ E  l  r b (  Cy $  " % k E j h'  n # E a C    ' " z S   V ( b " ( j %" $ 'd#   a %  ™ h%  '$ $  h      dc h k E%  1 < t 6 m.  y   > 0 x > 10 u 6 (log x)1−ε ™ ™  m $  k "  #% y Ψ(n, M) ' ™ ' d h% € ‰ € {  {‡ { ‹ ` kb "  ™ `  j ‘ { ‹ ‰ z Œ   E B ' b  j        ( dj   E  " d    † % % k ' c n = u · v, k E %# "' b $ #  log x log y   $ ' C u= '    $ £ hy " %  $  "    j E C #% b$ " m Ψ(x, y) = x · u−u(1+o(1)) . Ψ(n, M) = u−u , n    1     4/  1  2           5 7          /  5  41 2   1   - ,+ - 7 y %  Pk2 − nQ2k $  ( dc    $ # ` m $ z '   b j     ™ E ` z  a % j    Pk2 − nQ2k j  " #% y  d b E%  E ™ "   ` z $  # dc E C #%  ' " `     " h ' $ %y C h   ( d b E%  E C    " u ` (   ' "  b$ % u ‘ ? ‰‡ ˆ Š { › Ž{‹ €  } €  ‰ Ž€ ? “‘ ‰‹ ƒ † „ Œ ‹ €‡ € ‰ ƒ ‰ “ Ž€ {  ‡ ’“ { ‹ ‘ { – † ‰ { ‡ Ž ‘ ˆ ˜ ˜Ž“ ˜€  }–  ‘ ˆ œ ‡ ‹  ~  >  “œ ‘ ‰ †‰ ‘ {—   * TX (  U  ‘ { ˜ ˜ › { } ˆ ˆ z   #    z    '  d m " ™ #  %"  $  $ $   b %   $ E  E' ' " E D ' C b " d m $ £  hy "  j   m "C  $    k $  " '     E  E Rl $ " %& b "  C h " " ™ # (   h c    `  m  k h c h ' $ "` ' l $ B  C$ %  ' " b$ % " j   ( '     ™ b " '  EC h " E  ™   &h  s ˜ ˜ # j    ™ ˜ ‘ Ž{ ‡ ‹ Ž€ ‘ €  ‹ €‡ “ – € „ { ˆ ˆ  ˆ ‰› { › { } { €— œ ‡ {‹  “œ € m { z   ‡Ž } &h > Ž ™ C E %# ' ' " $ #  ( ( j C #% D   $  E B  dc E " ' $ €› Ž ‹ ‰  } ‘ {— ˆ  ™ Qk kb "  & b  $  % $ # " 'd# n    ™ #`    b d    „ ˜“ ˆ œ  d m " #  m `  E & C C " a +  h%  œ ‡  ‹  ~ S   V  ‰ { “ ‰‹ ƒ € {  “œ € Ž‰‡ ‡– ‹ € ˆ  { ˆ € “ {‹ } k # "  $ d ' E % (    "j  bh  C" €‡ {  ˆ ™ " $ dj `      Qk 1 |Pk2 − x2 Q2k | − 2x < 2x · −1 + + < Qk+1 2xQ2k+1     Qk+1 Qk + 1 < 2x · −1 + = 0. < 2x · −1 + Qk+1 Qk+1 Pk Qk ™ #  $ ™ # ' % $   m E %# ` l `   E  ; bD % m  h      P "' $ 'd $ " E " k m " ™ # " '   %$ '  ' % " j   ƒ Ž > ;  m %  d m E Rl $  &h  * $  $  $ " k E D b " E a % $     ( E ' E C dc E %E  d j ` `    E h      % &  " $ $ v  m m      E a 'd b " E  j ™ h  $ y %  $ # " k "  %# y  $ dj   E  ` $ $     m m  a E E dc "  % k   & Rl $ " %& b " E a % $ Cy  # ! "   Cy    "   E E ' p C a "   %  $ b# "   Pk " C % k ' j   Pk2 mod n  u   m ' C % E   dj      '$ %   E ' E        " 'd b "'  b + "  m k = 1, 2, . . . h m  " C   " u $ # Rl $  ' "  E Pk2 ≡ (Pk2 − nQ2k ) (mod n), √ |Pk2 − nQ2k | < 2 n Pk2 % " % b ( np ) = −1 a ( B h m m "   " $ h%  " " %y    $ C   Pk2 − nQ2k √ x= n  dj  √ n E d 'd ¤ 'd# " %&   ™ #  $ # cŸ c%  ' " C C " $ '$ dc E  k E " E j   k          j   E  j     ;  'd   $  % k E y y h a % & `   s  ™ $ (  E%  h b " % E  'd  E ¤  h & D  E  ' m m   $  b "  E h E & B m z # dc E %#  j    " ™ # z  c    #  ™ %      $ k %  $ # " ™ $   $ b " E " k ' C  "   %d k " % k' b2 mod n "  p C j k E %# `  $  , "  j  E $  d B E " x>1 $ "   %   ' E   " ' $ j   h  a  c E%  Cy  j E # E B  ™  E " %y  ™ $ h   b "' ' "   E  "  E a n  " j # E b   m  E D ' % n   $ #  E " D 'd  $ % d  ;  % $ #  $ Pk2 mod n %  m h'  j   E #  z $ $ " k z C $  #b √  " ™ #b  (  'd    E l E   dc E   ` E D " %& d "  j d m $ b "' b %  $ E a %& A $ £ hy " Q2k | = Q2k · $     m  j       E a % k h E %  k c b '  h%  $ M = π(M ) = L(n)1/2 . E $ # ' dj m " a  $ $ Pk2 − nQ2k b  `  ' % ` m    h B " %& ™     E`   $ E a " *   −x 2  `   $    E  'h   a bD *  E b $ #    $  b " E j y  E ' E C y * b E " C h m C " E " E b " bD E C b  " % h "  % k' $ " E " k |Pk2   u  k E ™ $ " j   k '  E ( ( ™ * E C uu = L(n)1/2 , E  C #% $ '    & E j  a E ' y  k E D C #% C  m & dc  T = OA (uu · h2 + h3 ),     m S ' " h ™ E c E "    + E E' Rl $    T V   V S c>1 a z ' d    C  E  X S [U  X d E   ` k E T = OA (L(n)2 + L(n)3/2 ) = O(L(n)2 ). %   E h "    $ %  ™ *  " %& ' c k E " % c      h u   L(n) b "'    E &    $ $ y  E j $ " V Ut  $ " E a E E h+1 h = π(M ) = lnMM M = L(n)1/2 &  by   k "  m  C c' h' k "  %# y %& b   8 : (  B  % k j      j C " _  " B '  a E &  'd b  %  ` ™ ( & 5 % O(L(n)c ) & E   $ # d E C #% & 24 $ B E a % `  m  h   $  , M √ exp( ln n · ln ln n) h ™ ™ h dc E OA (h3 ) h h+1   n = −1. p k>1 |Pk2 − x2 Q2k | < 2x.   Pk Pk 1 1 2 . · x+ < Qk · x− · 2x + Qk Qk Qk Qk+1 Qk Qk+1 √ 2 n    1     4/  1  2       ,    5          /  5  41 2   1   - ,+ - " $ * % $ Zp  (   g ™  j fab  b − a  n =− . a   x = −b/a −1 < x < 0 ™  z j$ c E '     # c     $ Cy  k h c $ E ™ $ y  h%    $ k "  m  m 'd j E d b E%    "  E b #   dc  ` dc E C #%  $ `   $      E ' E C #%  C h  "          u  m  $  ' "  $  E'  k " k% E  'd ' " E     'd  "  (  ) " E        %d    $    $  E%  E ' E b E% '  " E $ b2 − ac = n, # d " E  $ " E C #% $ $ + % '  k " # c y ( ™ ' % C y  $ h  `   n  "  y     h m m ( z      k # E a h  % k %h  a % h   E ( & , e 4 , u r B     $ y   " y k  ' "%  ' C h   % $ #  %d  k " % k' k d " E     h& z $ %  $   S X    V t V  Z X S (  S * ( VX  @ 8  ' "     (  E%  #  j  & E b '" b %  $ %  a % j  y  $ $ $  " E a %   E    kb ` m  " m h " % k '  k E ( " ™ #  "  D C E j   #   C #%    s      c h d E E h %   & " E  ' $  z h   E ` u l a l R h (  ( ( m m £ ( $   "C  ' " $ C E % $ ™ ™     y  j  %  $ #   "    b '" " $ C $   d!m $ " a  " " a  k E  $  & h a  % k h  z   ' E  " k " k%    $  $ y E  'd dc "  % k ™ h c "   $ p∈B '" k     r a, b, c fab (x)   C E n `  x ' % C kb " k%   $ $ E   "   " 'd h   " E % " ™ # ( ( $ $    $   %  $ '# " %#  & bD %  E # " " h % k h k " k% E  'd (    %y C h   "  m  E   $ u m  E %a Ch     " u      s ( ™ "    $     E ' E  dc "  % k ™ h % $ # " b % " % z x≡ri (mod p) p∈B E b "C (   %y C h   " y $ £ E  ` ™   & h a  % k h   z             $ ' " E ' b '"    " b       y E h a c            /  5   E   41 2   1   C     - ,+   1    4/  1  2     5 u -  " m     " E E h b E% " ' h  ' % h  Cy z $ " 'd# d E # " h'  k " % k' k dc "  % k ™ h % $ # " b % " a E p∈B x " (   c E " k  " '   % $ E   "  C E  c h b a, b, c   ,   j   z E   '  k ™ C u C #%   √ f (x) = (x + b nc)2 − n, E   E a   "  E   " %dc  d E "     j  x E #        ™ " (   h' $ "' b " 'd (p) E b E%  E " " E'    $ j   # b E "'  "  %  k " $ $ v  %& √ 2 (p)     b '" "   % ' " E      Cy  y  E ≡ n (mod p), r1 , r2 [−M, M] E E E  E f (x) p∈B %a j a %   $ $ C "    E h  %  (p, Qk ) = 1  ™   &    j  $ $   $ " j # E a  % k'  B h   E h a  b "'  ( "   b = f (x) −M 6 x 6 M " αp (x) k j  a %  % k h &  b E%    "  E' %& C    k p ™  ' % k h C " ' ' %  $ dc '  " # u (Pk , Qk ) = 1 E ' p E   p∈B Y C 2  √ &   " &   h  # E E % √ f (x) 6 x2 + 2x n, x " " % k l B " a f (x) = (x + b nc) − n = E d   z k E %# y  √ (x + b nc)2 6= f (x) k ( dj "   a E " h a   j  ( np ) = 1 ( (p)   $ ' m     u   2 Pk Q−1 k E   $ " ` % ™  ' " E   # $ ™ √ (x + b nc)2 ≡ f (x) (mod n), x∈Z D  E   j & "  c= n ™ √ (x + b nc)2 − n ≡ 0 (mod p) (p) E ' E j    "     $ % # ' b " C " 'd " a  f (x) Qk ™ r1 , r2 (p) x = ri + jp i = 1, 2 j ∈ Z        " a O(L(n)c ) ' C E " h'  D  B E'   $ b % ' b kb " k% E  'd x p p p | (Pk2 − nQ2k ) (p) f (x) fab (x) = ax2 + 2bx + c, 0 6 b < a; afab (x) = (ax + b)2 − n, (ax + b)2 ≡ afab (x) (mod n), (ax + b)2 6= afab (x). [−M, M ] 1 fab (−M ) ≈ (a2 M 2 − n). a     C #% ' " #    u i=i+1 ( ( b  z  " E `   %   bD %   m z      $     & "    E' b %   j  $ 'E ™ " $  & E E'  $ " m k E h   a c E h " ` ( d E "  ™    j    s  m * $ k " % 'k k    n  $   $   E ' E k " k% E  'd d (      j $ y      $ $  E a c  # " $ '  k " ` m  m 'd d " ™    &   'dc    E j h'    h&  ¢ r £ z $  $    " dc "  'E %  $ # dc "  " '  $ ™  b "' b %   j  $ E a %  m k!  & %   E h E E E " j ' $     ( p | (2M (k) − 1, n), d=(2M (k) − 1, n) p    1. . .>αk d b d# B  "C k E%   ,  %" ¢ ' % k  $ "  m  % $ ™ #    M (k)= ( ' ( ' %  y  E % $  j c ' % k h+    ' " 2 b − ac = n. ¤ x h   j   $ #      $   $  $ C ' % C " ™ # E  0 6 b < a. h%   $  " " a E     "  E # E Cy h%  b$ "'  j  m   2n . M (     m $ $  ' " # ' ( $    " √ x C E E' z   $     "C  ' " C # E k " k% E    x $ $ z E  'd E j  h'  % $ # $ ' " # ' ™  E  d# m ™ C      E ¢ −b/a  z   fab (x)     '   " ™ #C " a 'd a " E  j  C  "    % ™  $ # m  u a '  E%  # & E k m " ` a 9   & z *     ' $ h " h    9      -    *           l    h "    & " E    "     ™ z  9   9   9    9   (       f (x) %       j             %   " D  & E # " h'  h " k $  " ' dj E E h " C+  E  d E a %  '  "   E %# ' E %y " ` u j   C E E  k E # E  b "   m 'd C h ( z z #  d ' E %   $   m d m %  $           $  % k h d b E% " " # h   % d %E    C"      $ " b E%  E  b E%    u d m " ™ #       " j  "  B & ™   C '  j  E  ` % (   % M      $ # 'E ( dj  ™   "   [−M, M] E " " E'       E    E ' E $    h c b2 ≡ n (mod a), %&  E   "    " h'  ` d % m  $ a≈ & E " y k  ' "%  '  m "    j  E  % ( nq ) = 1 h c $   C 'd  %  $ # $ c C ™ # D h   u dc " −M & √ 1 |fab (x)| 6 √ M n, 2 √ 2 2 √ M n √ √ √ |fab (x)| 6 2 + 2x n ≈ 2x n 6 2M n. j [−M, M] E E  h   % ' " q|a b m a, b, c fab (x) 2M (k) ≡ 1 (mod p). 2M (k) 6≡ 1 (mod n), mi = cM (i) mod n    1     4/  1  2           5          /  5  41 2   1   - ,+ -  %# y ™ "   $ $ $ (  E a % k " % ` m    z D   z  '    C     "  E m  E " % k $ 'd#      E    b$ %"  $ " #  m z 'd E ™ " C " E m  E   ( C    $  $    E # " " h k E'  D % k l ( d E a " # C E b "  d m ! C " &  d E   b $ " £  % ( & " `  d " d z       D` b E% % $ # d 'h $  " ' k " E% %       $ # "  "  #% y ` d E " ™ # ( $  " Cy j m (p, q, ϕ(n), d) (p, q, ϕ(n)) & E + " % k $ 'd#    &  % "  & c B "     m " d "  E m  E  b Ca E E ( 'k   u ™ E   j ' $   %# y  d " d  " k " % k'  k m    %  $ #  " E  $  $ "  ` z % C   $ j d   /  ™ m +  E     j % g " j  (    " ™    %  $ # E C #% b$ "j k' k $   "C  " "   E j h'  m  `    $    %  $ # dc "  c bD % ' h "C     E & E & " m z % k $ 'd#  q d ' E E $     $    E  E E 'h  C #%  $  "  $ E p '$ # te ≡ s (mod n)  hj   d  !    ™ E E'  B   dc "    $`  $ $ "  #  !     "  "  t "     &  "     E m  E   (n, e)  ™ ™  '  d j      E C #j   A   m n = pq ϕ(n) = (p − 1)(q − 1) ed ≡ 1 (mod ϕ(n)) (n, e)  m ™   "   m p q e  & %y k E h a c  E 'd k  u   D A k' k $  " % k' k B k   E '  $ $ (     y $ $ ` % k l  #% y  dc E "   ( z d h a d  `   r  m $ $ " dc d   m " m   " %& ` ¢ d "  " C  ' " ' d    E     " m 'd " E E /         %# '  E E  C & b " m d m ! " a " %& b  k  $ "C   m ( (  $   b %   `    c  # u ! " ™   "    s  "% k' "  $ C  $ k E%  $ 'd# % k h (    j `  m $ E k $  $ " " # C   " ™   $      $ y E   E' b %     j  $ b E% '    d c  E%  %   k h'   m d $ $   y      ™ '   "  d E d     Ej C  dc " ' ™ ' "` '  E C  #j   m " m  z   j   h' ' k  E h'  ' & E  ' "  h "  b % ' b %&     E % E  'd  u $   z     #  "  d E   $  E%  $ #   & E E k " $ (   E E  $ "    ' % C   $  E % E  'd b " d m ! j    $  ¢ h E b E  " '  E h'  ' "   z        D b   E # %  C #%  k '   $   k " 'E  ¥ " m   2 '  E a % h  (   E h  `     $`  $   %  d m ! E (  ) %# y   d " d  " d  $ "  $ #   &  "  £    $   bD % b " a    E # E kb " # E u m  m 'd E ™  E %a h "     " h m C % Eb %" h   ( b E%  ( ™ " "    s z  r $  $ $      #  $ $ %$  k " % k' k   $ " k   #   &  "  b %  ™ (  /  z    ¤  '  " E E h E " ` h m C & D E  ™ ( ™ "  %"   h` d   b % "  C      " u  L  J L  J  N   N J G  N      (p − 1) | M (i) % b t (p, q, ϕ(n), d) E% E k z $ " E m " (mi − 1) mod n Zn E ( $  a % k " Zn log M (i) 6 i log i O(i log i) cM (i) E `  mi ≡ 1 (mod n) "  O(k 2 log k log3 n) (  $ j    E'  E dc E %# b %      ` c (c, p) = 1 p | (mi − 1)  E (c, n) = 1 mi ≡ 1 (mod p) n k e (n, d) s ≡ te (mod n). t ≡ sd (mod n) ™ z        $ E E E '  E h C kj b %  $ " %& b "'     h E a -   1     4/  1  2        ( ` " ™  ™ $ ≡ −1 (mod n), s0 −1 r " r ™ |Bn | = |Bn0 | + ≡ −1 (mod p) s0 − 1 < i s0 =1 i X |Bns |. s0 6 i   b ™  E%    " ™ #b   "j   ( j  ™ "   "  y ` y  j      " E " % k '  ϕ(n) = 2i m2j l, % k h  $ " E " k ' d ' E  `   ™  ™ " d "  $ E E  k E h a c   ™ "C $ u (  E j    h&  y j   %  $ #   "   `    " E " % k ' 1 − 2−k n Z∗n = An ∪ Bn  s0 −1 s0 r An = a ∈ Z∗n : ∃s0 6 s, a2 6≡ ±1 (mod n), a2 r ≡ 1 (mod n) , Bn = Z∗n \An . b ™ " %  $ #b "    %  $ # z  $    $ E    c  C $ by " E " k ' " %& d E E h " # a `  u  z c   E & % ( j     E h E E  E a %  ( `   %h   g ' " %&  &    j$ $  k  E ' E  k " h c E & % $ ™ E d ™ "  % %"   h  ` $ $ % "  $ # c ' % k h % g     $  ™ " E D $  C %  D  & D E " ¤ by    (  z      j    %   $ #  d  $ C " C h m   E £ (  b $  "   j %  $ b# '"       a d % ™  E% '" "` $  l  (  E'  (  f x   ` %  $ # ¤ & D  E & E  E h E k l % & % k  $ 'd# z  $  $   `  $ b '" "  $ $ C  %# y ` d E "   " E a E ™ "  $    %  $ #j   %y  " Eb " $ ` m E  ™ #    " E h p  TX T S E a X S \S ( W   *) T V S   j    ' k $ "  % " ™ # a  u  `  =  7 /  /   / 1/    1       ,  ,   " / 1/   4/   1   2   1   4  1   - ,+ - ≡ 1 (mod n).  'h d " E  $    " k E " %&  h c E  a d &  " r ™ j  h     n " %   E d " '   %     s z  "  k $ +  E E  p ' % C # _ i6j E "b %$     "j  h |Bn | < '" (  d E " # E =  €‡ Ž ~ ‡ €‹ ‹~ ‰ “ ‹ € > ‡ {‹  } '  u ?  ™      " %  C    s0 $  l $ "` s0 6 i C ™ * ‰ h ' " $ a E '  $ h " € ˆ  (    $  g  D b   u ml | r "   m, l s [ (   b % Bn = Bn0 ∪ b 2 = a2 ( s0 −1  2i m2j l | (ed − 1) = 2s r # ‡ ˜{ € Ž€  {‹~ ™ ‡ ‹ “‘ ƒ ~ “’ †Œ ~{ ‡ >  — " k Cy % ™    %  6≡ ±1 (mod n), (  a2 Bn ( a2  1/2 " &h Bn0 = {a ∈ Zn : ar ≡ 1 (mod n)},  s0 −1 s0 r ≡ −1 (mod n), a2 r ≡ 1 (mod n) , Bns = a ∈ Zn : a2 ™    ” Œ {‡ { ™ j   a ∈ An E "C   $ E ' $ p−1=2i m q−1=2j l Bns " h& z "  E    ‰‹ ƒ ‰ ‰ ‘• ‰  { ‡ ‘Œ } “‘  " h%  $ E  a1 , . . . , ak ™ " ( ™ b "C ( ™ " † ‰‡  { “— ‰‹ ƒ œ  " ' dj E  r % ™   a E  $ u $ E " # E ™  *   ? ‘– ˜‰ € ˆ     " %& "  s0 −1 ™  b  $ b E%   " # kb " k% E   ' "    s   >   ‡ ‹  ~ S  D  (b + 1, n) % " kb " k% "' #  C " ≡ 1 (mod n). E   & $ "` d 'd  s>1  'd h%  ™ $  ar " b h a  E # & %  $ E'    ( ' € ‡ {‹    $  $ n   i r 2s−1 " a $  % k h  E %a h  &h $ u  $ " “œ { „  { › ‘ ˜{ ‡ † Ž€  ‰‡ (n, e) n " b E%   E " b "C   E " % ™ ( kb " k% b$ %  ‘ €› } €‡ d C h % g ( E   `  & h a j  ' $   E  'd j ‹ ~ ’ k $ ϕ(n) = (p − 1)(q − 1) ed ≡ 1 (mod ϕ(n)) h m    ™ " %& d E $ " E " k    & " "  l  " k h q " "'   w E %a   ed ≡ 1 (mod ϕ(n)) b j Z∗n %" %  $ (  % k  ` b r C ¤ ` a 1 , . . . , ak ∈ E   #    ' b h %  h   ¢ p $ −1 (mod n)  D  $ ( & D  E v E m  + $ ed − 1 = kϕ(n), ed−1=2s r Z∗n h%  C %   D  (  $  C *    "  `  p + q = n − ϕ(n) + 1, p p − q = (p + q)2 − 4n. '   $ % k " % E " "  #% $   "   # V d E ϕ(n) ™ "  (a ) , (a ) , . . . , (a ) r 22 'E $ $ "    % %      { q " E %  k k  '   m k % g 'd# ™ " $ 'd#   c d B  E Ž “— ‘ p $ $  a a ≡ 1 (mod n) ar ≡ 6 1 (mod n) & E E h Ej  " $ $ v œ ‡ ~ ‡ ‹ d k r 2  % k l  2s r " ™ " r  % g d "  {‹  n = pq E $  # "'  % $ , x  q D  $ ™  g  a C %   ' k  $ ( & k'  % p ( $  D  "  ¤ x ' E " u d " "     $ k ( & $ "  (p, q, ϕ(n), d) b = a2 s0 (b − 1, n) q |ϕ(n)| 2 Bns , s0 =1 gi = gi−1 gi−1 /hi−1 , hi = (gi , eA ),  `   &  dc E " j ' $  ( k E'   b " ` d E "  b$ %"  h   `  /  j   %  $ #    "     #   hj  z  j  n  % $ $ E " "   % k  E  'd ™ E  h   C  E D U T Z ( ™  E  E  c %# y  c % $ ™  ( A ™ ™ j    E " #  ' m $ m #% y  b '" " $ C $  y  % k '  k E    $  t s1 ≡ teA (mod n)  ™ " ™ # c  " %    z  $   " $  "  E ( ' " C % '       $ $`  %# y C  % D E  ' h m C "  &h  s (eA , eB ) = 1  % $ #     & E     Vp  R "  E &    $    $    %# y  dc " d  "   $ % "  d " ™ #  a %  h ( y C #% `  u ™     $   C E E h  k   $  $ k E "  E  # j   E  h % h  E #% y j  B z ( E j        Ej  h    s ™ ™ &h   ( ™ "  $ £  hy " (t, ϕ(n)) = 1 E  $   m q kb c   $  D   p a  *     l       s ( % $ #   $  " ™ # ™ %  $ 'k % C  $ c E % k h %h '       g " %& d E $  E  D b   " k j z j  C b %   $ B    %  $ # k E h a d  (  E'   "  C #%     ™  E #    D    % E " % E  'd " %& #  m ™ %    ™ "' & $     %  d  C & h     k h    ' y C z   % C b  $ k " ' "%  ' C h " h m % $ # " ™ b# ™  " 'h &   ( d   $ " h m C ™    j   j    k' d " # ™     j     %  $ # ¤ & D k E % E  'd " b "% C ' E E C #% C #%  u   ™   E 'h # t    n "% k' '$ $ " 'd  ' c  b$    sx1 sy2 ≡ t (mod n) %  k kb ` E k  % "'  * S  xeA + yeB = 1 d  $ y  "   m  $ # E D ™ " E E' E m  E  c $ % E %a  b ≡ dA (mod n) hi | eA (eA , ϕ(n)) = 1  E %a $    E'      *   $   $ # bh    & % E k h Ca $ $ v    " t = h 0 h1 . . . h i   eB dB − 1 , eA = 1, t E " a h $ E a  E " d D $  C TUV  $ # % ' z C h " d E %   j  `   hy 2 log n  E $    $   dc $ " q h E d E %a b "  p  C E  u  " h by C  p    " h h'   $ " b %  E k h j   E # " E'  "' b %  d h a   " ™ #  " ( ϕ(n) % $ ™ #    m % E  q D  D E dc E C c' h %  " $ " m k h $ $ h  d m ' m j   Ej   a   % E %     j   b$ "'     ™  j E &  k %  " c # $ m   dc $ "        E  h   b $ ( $  E 'd  $ u € ‰ { ƒ‡    E & $ d E " B  {a ∈ Zp : ar ≡ 1 (mod p)} "  %  % ( k E'  ™ " " s2 ≡ teB (mod n)   $ " a $   = ? >  ‰ %  %# y  j t = h 0 h1 × . . . × h i  E # dc  #  u % k ` † ‘ €‡ ™    $   $ a    ™ # 'dc  dc  %# y  – /   j $ b# "% h kb %  k " c i E E 'h $ "  z  B  ' z E ‰‡ "  € Œ ‹ ‰ “‘  x, y j b "  & b  c bD   * eB ϕ(n) E%   D `  { a  “— ‘ { ‡ ‘  ‰‹ ƒ € € ‡ €‡ ‰ ‰ ‘• ‰  ” ~ “œ { ( d   ™ E` p d  % "  ™  " b {—  Ž ‘ {  ‰ †‰ { ‡ ‘Œ } ‰‹ ‡ € " $ $` %   j   4i − 1 2k = 2 ml = ml 1 + 3  $ z eB dB − 1  k $  $ E E   j B q   % "' b   € €‡ ˆ € „ = { „ ‘ ‰ “ ‹ "' b C & |Bn0 | = |Bp0 | · |Bq0 | = (r, p − 1)(r, q − 1) = ml, ( t = thi .  &h   $ %    ’  ‡ †~{— „   'd# " ™ u  ™  a œ †{ { ‘ { ‰ { { ‡ S   V p  eA   '  A eB dB − 1 = kϕ(n) & "  % ( " E m  E  u   } ‹ ‘ —  ˆ ~ ™ ‡ € q  (  $ b# %  ( ' " b$ % —  ˆ ~ > ‡ € { p &   %& ` ( %" C " E   j l $ £ %  hi > 1 ™ d   C E %# ' b %" E $ "   " m q0 = eB dB − 1 h0 = (g 0 , eA ) t = h0 ™ E E'   h` d b E%  k E $ 'd#  Cy E "    s   $ $ "   j ( j # E C " a  n = pq   E  ' E j     E dA E  " h "C  ' " #  j  ' $ − (2s −1 r, q − 1)) = (2s m − 2s −1 m)(2s l − 2s −1 l) = 22(s −1) ml.  $ $ C " # d E " ' $ ( ™  ™ j # £ t (eB dB − 1)/t A   m    % E %  k=0 c  $ { „  4i + 2 2i+j + 2 2i+j ϕ(n) = ml 6 ml < ml = . 3 3 2 2  i−1 X " a  u  } ‘ |Bn | = ml + h ,  i "  u ( $ ‹ Œ E c &  , x  " ' %    B $ ( &  |Bns | = |Bps ||Bqs | = ((2s r, p − 1) − (2s −1 r, p − 1))((2s r, q − 1)− %a % k l ¤ x  E r, p − 1) = m h (  # " # dB & k E%  q Zp Zn ∼ = Zp + Z q hi > 2 i 6 log2 (eB dB − 1) 6 2 log2 n. eB dB − 1 + beA = 1. t eB dB − 1 . t  q / ,  / 1/   4/   1   2   1   4   , /  ,   / 1/    1       1   - ,+ -  ` m   b  z %   j  { “ ™ ( r s > p ≡ 1 (mod r), p ≡ s − 1 (mod s) { ' "  $ 'h %      & %  $ ( d "  $ "  d " " %  $ # $   %  $ # d $ "   b  E%   E`      E'   C &     $ D E # & % E C kj  E%  , %  $ #  'h    %  $ #    m z E ' l “ ‰‹ ƒ  $ u(r, s) = (sr−1 − rs−1 ) mod rs "j  C#  u(r, s) = 2g, g ∈ Z. {  u(r, s) = 2g + 1, u(r, s) + rs, ™ ‡   '   u(r, s), E h "  k  'D $ "  _ $  "  "  ' " $ "j (   k  $ $   C "  "  E % $ # k  'D  $  "  '  % %"   h c  E h ( d $    ` u ™ z    y       b E%  "  E d "  % $ # " b % "   $  $    % ' " E ' % k'  "  E%  h dc  E  by    ` m % `  ™ '  E %  j   $ # E Ca E  y     j z ` C    n $ (  h "  Cy h%  $ C b  $   %  $ # d E C #% $  d  c    " $ "  ( &  Ej  & h a % ™   $ # E C #% $      $  m  &h ' ™ " d E " #  ` , x _ ( k  E  " $ % k l t “‘ ‰‹ ƒ k   % k' " $ C  % b  $  m   " ¤ x 2lt+1 " m  Cy   $   h%  E   h dc ™ ( &  z  d E " E%     s € > ‡ {‹  } € $ $ "   E   % ' "   r "    by  ( r £ ' '  / £ k (  ' %  u '   b$ " D   r ¢ £ ™ dc "    E     E  %  $ # c  "    ' " "  E $  $ " k " k%   $  + ' "  E'  d E % E ™ ™ b "  d m d E %a h     E  'd  b %   &  % C #%   d E    " #    % '  k h  'd ™   $  ™ # " k' d " # ™ # z E  e 4 , r = 2lt + 1. p = 2jr + 1, p = 2ks − 1, E & " %&  a % h  E h  ( & ( a l R z  E # " $ " h d "  $ E E  k E h   a c E % k hC  " t   $ %  "j k k ¢ b $   $  r x €‡ ™  k ƒ a % %   $ # %   m m  " &h '      (ordp (a1 ), ordq (a2 )). €   $  E  $ z b % # [1, log t]  c " #  k   $ d# B f x " #       ¢ %  E ' E $ p q r  h m ( &  z * E ™ bD % " " ™    E c '$ ™  b E% [x, x + log x]   ( d   z  " ™  ` h m C  ™ d "  E E $  $ #     s % k h  (  %  $ # % "     j  j    C %  '$ " ™ #  "   ™ € ˆ — ™ ™ ?  “‘ ‰‹ ƒ € > ‡ {‹  } € ‰ “œ { „ ™ z z     j y      a E d $ "  E k E a % " &  b % Cy  E & bc " " B .  " %&  &  p0 + 2krs ‰ = & " " $ z p0 = ( “ ‹  E   u    k $ "  &h  E D dc E " E%  '    _ D j k l † ˜Ž‰ E h  E  z ™    y "' h%   E p r s t ‹ ~ % h '  ' j  ™ $  E # E  & k E E   b C '   ϕ(n) . 2 €‡ S  $ E ' "   $ ' b % $  z  j  " '     #%   ed ≡ 1 (mod ϕ(n)). ˜ Ž{  B    & % E # ' d m !    $ d h%   " $ ' % C $  E'  (p − 1, q − 1) €‡  b E%  $  %  m % a h  ™ E j  a E ' b " %# y $   ed ≡ 1 (mod (p − 1, q − 1)) Ž“  $  ™ ( l " $ E E Zn ∼ =Zp +Zq { ˆ V q+1 2 ~ ™ '" k "  %# y   ¢  % " a ™  %  $ #  j  (p + 1) " d  ( % $ $ E dc % E   $ s t a   E %a h q2 = h $   j 5 #  $ "   $ c b #  $ (p − 1, q − 1) (p−1, q−1)=2 p=2t+1 q=2s+1 (s, t) = 1 (p − 1) p q p−1 p+1 q−1 q+1 d E %a ™ ( & e 4 ,   £ d + ( % $ q−1 , 2 E a  q1 = ™ % h ' D B d 2    C #% " ' d  ` ( % $ (p − 1, q − 1) $ $ "   d m   D p−q 2 # " q1 − 1 # p+1 , 2    "  u  $ "  " ' $  "      ¢ a = a 1 + a2 dc $ " p1 − 1  m ™  d!m  # D −n=    bD %   E E%  " ™ #  d E q−1 bD   h d m k "    ' h ordn (a) =  v   c % k " a  "' 2 % % E E' % C   m E E h p+q 2 c b p2 = %  $  ™ $    $ p−1  E%  #  p−1 , 2    #    E' " q −1 %"   ™ % $ #  d m " # p−1 hj  E h'  d $ "  % d m ! p1 =  & j  h E ' kb $  $  " & ' " # '  $  j      n     j   { “ ‹ ~ ‹ ‡ ’ “ { } Ž > + ˜Ž‰ ˜ ˜   E ' E C b " D        " h " kb "' b %   '$ B \ ™ † ˜ > ‰ “ €‹ > ‡ {‹  } {  “œ ‰ ‹ ‹ €‡ Ž ‘ ‘ / 1       / ,   / 1/      1   - ,+ ,  1  / 1/   4/    2   1   4   { ‰‹ ƒ € { ‡ {‹     U (    P  m - “      j a E # E       % b "      d m d E %a h E  E ™ " ™ dc ' z"  p p ≡ 1 (mod r), p ≡ s − 1 (mod s), r ≡ 1 (mod t), p bD  $ c '    j  e∈ Z∗ϕ(n) E  $   " %  d m " ™ #b "' (    b0i = j=1 2i Y € pijij , α ordordn (ω) (e) i = 1, . . . , r, “ € ‰‹ ƒ b0i b00i = j=1 2i Y ˆ b00j qijij , β €  r ¢ £ ™    $ j  `   s    C #%   ™ $ ϕ(Fp ) ϕ(Fq ) , Fp Fq i = 1, . . . , r, j = 1, . . . , s, j = 1, . . . , s. "C  h%  E E'  " $ h    $ E ' % C   $  % k' " y  h  ' " E % % $   "   $ '$  %  $ # 'd by  m   "  % $ (  ' % C C E E h c y  $   y k  ' "%  ' C h ™ %  $ k ( +  j  ¤ , f  (  ) d  $ y  $ k " % k'  j     $ E  k z % '     Ej E  l $ B  C b %  ' " b$ % " j   `  ™ h` ( ™  ™ C #%     ™ ~ r ¢ £ ˆ { ˆ ˜“ ‘ {— ‹ Ž€ ‘ €  €‡ Ž{ ˜ €‡ Ž“ { ˆ ™ ‰ € { { ‹ › > ‡  > Œ {‡ – „ Ž ~ ‡ › >  { {‡ ˜“ ˆ Œ (  j  $ B   d      n     "` % C %  ' " b$ % "  l “ € ‰‹ ƒ € ‰ € { “ ‘  ‰ ˆ ™  ‰ œ ‡ ‹  ~ S    Ž‰ €‡ †€ ‰ € { €‹Œ ƒ ‰ {  ‘ €Œ ˆ ™ — h=pq p−1=2Rp Fp q−1=2Rq Fq Fp Fq ‘Œ ‡ {x ∈ Z∗n : [Fp , Fq ] | ordn (x)} > (p − 1)(q − 1) œ ‡ ‹  ~ #    ™ " " ™ #  x ∈ Z∗n Ž‰ ? >   b " "  k h  %d  Fp | ordn (x) Fq | ordn (x) (Fp , Fq ) | ordn (x) €‡ † ™  #   k' d " i=1 s Y †€ qj0 − 1 = 2a00j b00j , † ( " # % c C& 'h  Fq = ‰ p0i − 1 = 2a0i b0i , € ™ " # j  E  E a k E    $ & E     Ej  E  $ # h % C #  α “  (  " ™ # $ ™  hy $ £ p0i i , ‰ ˜Ž‰ { “ C / h     "  C#   " i=1 r Y ‹ ~ ‰ n = pq €  ( z $ m  " % $`   s * a  u  u Fp = ‰ € = ω (mod n). { % " '  dj   B ™  E ( g " f> “ ‘ œ ‡ ‹  ~ S  ` # m a j  ` % $ " f (Fp , Fq )  {  eu ≡ 1 (mod ordn (ω)), €‹Œ ƒ 4  h  ( y  & bD   '   hy ( E > ‰  m c   %   g $ £ sr−1 ≡ 1 (mod r), {  V   " j  ' $  k E  m %# Eb E h  " p − p0 ≡ 0 (mod r) p − p0 ≡ 0 (mod s) p0 ≡ u(r, s) (mod rs) p0  p q ω ∈ Z∗n ordn (ω) ω    j  E k   $  d!m " " a 'h rs−1 ≡ 1 (mod s). ‘ " # k E'  D  $ E d " d  " c u(r, s) = (sr−1 + rs−1 ) mod rs. ( k E'  D   j  $     $ h b %   $   " b E% " ™ ' z  E " d " $ $ "  " $     y  Cy   b$     " E  $   " c j Cy u(r, s) = 2g + 1, u(r, s) = 2g, g ∈ Z, €Œ ˆ —  h    a c E % k h C #% $ sr−1 ≡ 0 (mod s) rs−1 ≡ 0 (mod r) ( u(r, s) ≡ 1 (mod r), u(r, s) ≡ −1 (mod s). h m ' E       $    " h " `  /  Ž‰ €‡ †€ ‰ { { ‘ {— Œ€ ™ — ™ ƒ‘ “ ~ { Ž‡ { “œŒ { ‡ ‰ { †‹ † ‡Ž ˆ ˆ ' % C '    & C        $  Ej E  ( & z  E # " ™ h ™ $  " h h'   4 42 , u € ˆ p = p0 + 2krs z ordordn (ω) (e)     k  3 d m m ω "  '  $ $ s = ω e , (ω e )e = ω e , (ω e )e = ω e , . . . , ω e , . . . 2  h E c C #% eu  % C k " % 2        E  'd E  ™   c " h p = p0 + 2krs E  'h & D   ™  b E% "' h%   ™ $ u(r, s), u(r, s) + rs, %# k  =ω '  %  eu −1 E'    $ # b E%  E s   p0 p ≡ p0 (mod rs) p0 + 2k 0 rs D  x∈ Z∗n $   m $ % k h " # E " ` m " # % k h E (  %  E # " p0 = ( qi0 i . β ordn (x) > r s X X ϕ(Fp ) ϕ(Fq ) 1 1 · >1− − . Fp Fq p q i=1 i i=1 i {x ∈ Z∗p : Fp | ordp (x)} > (p − 1) ϕ(Fp ) , Fp ϕ(Fq ) {x ∈ Z∗q : Fq | ordq (x)} > (q − 1) . Fq / ,  / 1/   4/   1   2   1   4    /  ,   / 1/    1       1   - ,+ -  ( j `   # $ $ % ™ k a E   m ( `  ™ b  z '     ™   a %  z b %  CE  $ ( ™   b %  Z  " "  ' $ C ' " E'  z C " C j  h m   %  $ # bD %   E # " " $ h m  j     h`  E # E %dc    h m ( z $  $ $  d E  "  k " % k' k %d %  ` ` g m    %  '   "  %dc z $  E k j  m  " % k' " $ h    (  "   by    & b E% " E  C d "  $ E E   E `        & bD %    # "   b % h% ' C m    $    k E' b %   j  $  E' " k " % k' k d E $ $ E'  " "  # "  dc m z $`        E E   a "%  dc E E   j  %  " "   d  /   j      E # E % b "  b E%  ( ¢    E' b %   j  $   ™     ™    $  dc " '  C " h b k "'    $ j E  a E ™ " k E'  D  `  (    j    k E # E    s k E'   z  D k ' " % k   j   y  h    z  k E'  D "  $     $    $  E E  'd  ' b  * V X  S   m  8 =  Vp  \S     "  " $ $ v  (         k E % E  'd c  E'  " E & E " "j c bD %     $    Cy " " E  %  $ # dc "      E & d C h     ` m    h bD % E k " '   $  (    '     $ y  ` m $ m   #  E    E C  C$  u    $ a % E d " 'k % C C   " ' " E  $        E &" %E    u  d " by   %$  $ # d " "  ' %$ "b "  pij ' " ™ h b E   " b " E a  d " E  j # E  k m k E'   ™  %  $ # b" "j k'   $  %  $ # d "  E  j   ' E  z       j   h % k hb j    %$ ' b %  $ " ™  z $  D d "  $ E E  ' " # '  z        $   j    b  "j k' E # " " h k E'  D  $  $  k E'   " h "  $ m   b E% "    $ E "  " $ ` $`   $  "  'd k E #  % k h    %  $ #   C$   '         E C ' " E E d  E   E'  $ E &  " E %$  & _ (  p00ij ` E  $ # e6k  "  E   $ E  " E k n $  ' u $ h&  ™  kb "   ™ " √ e " u  e C " ( "  E E  t< te = s   $  E c ( E   m d E E    '$ "  e a % k E #%  '   "        e % $ $ " a y  % $   E $ c bD %   d Cy   E k  ' "%  $ # 'd  k "% D d   k' j j  h'  ' k " % k' C$ h k   ™   E £   00 qij ' '     ` E a   d " E'    %  $ # E   C$     y  k $  " k " b$   '   E C '    E d E E'    $ $  h # ' j E & k "  Cy b %    '$ d " ™    $      E & % k h (  $  "     c`  d ' E  C$   " E E %  $ # dc $ "  k E   "  $   £ ™ ™ † z $       j  C h   " b "' b %  $  a E h "  & " b E% "  $ E " b "  % $   z $ y   "  $ Cy E # " " h c ™ h  %  $ # dc "     E & k l Ž{ ˜ €‡ Ž“ { ˆ ‰~ ‹ { {— ‡ {‹  } {  ‰ Ž‘  { {— „ “’ ` q     C ' C h  ™ "  E a  ‰‹ ƒ ‘  ‡ ‘ €Œ { “ ˜Ž‰ †+ ˆ ˜“ ˆ ‹ ~{ ‘ {— €— ’ p $ % $   d ™  &  $ k E C d C  k C " ` $ " k  g m $ $ e # j E   m %d % E " h e k $ E h "  "   $ E  dc " d h  e k " h c $ $  $  E $ E   a E E &" %E  u     p00ij x   k% E  k k E  kb   " j # E ?  › >  { {‡ ˜“ ˆ Œ qi0  " j  "C  b %  E E a "' 'd     e Cy j  # & %   c C  #%     _ – „ p0i   'd b %   $ ' E l $  ™ b E% "' h%  €‡ ‘  Ž > €  } € ™ ‰ € { { ‹ q    $ ™ '  " k  C&     j  m  " E # A ™  l £ ˜“ { ˆ p  h& " E s1 ≡te1 (mod n1 ), . . . , sk ≡tek (mod nk ) (ni , nj )=1 ni , nj ) ' " E m  E E m  E  "  " ™   (   & % E e=t ' $   D d  "   $  k E  y  "  "  r s X X 1 1 1− + . p q0 i=1 i i=1 i c   (b01 , . . . , b0r ) | ordFp (t),   " (Fp ,Fq ) (t) | ordordn (x) (t), # z % C $ (Fq ,Fp ) (t). % & % k h d m $  (b001 , . . . , b00s ) | ordFq (t), k d  k " k%    s b0i | ordp0αi (t) i $ " #  D    E  'd dc "  % k  % k ( ' " b$ %  l ¢ 1 qi0   %    E  ( ™ h  " j   “ ~ j = 1, . . . , si ,  " h £   " ™ #b    "j  i = 1, . . . , s, j m ™ #  b ™ r ¢    6≡ 1 (mod qi0 ), h c  "  "  d m E " % £     a  " i=1 $  E % " ' $   r ¢ C #%  E # A i   k $    v ' ( E %a k' r £  & % E ordordn (x) (t) r s P P 1 p0 +  $  $ " % #  & % k'  % % C  Ej h  $ " % k h  ¢  hy $ £ i=1   k bE % $ p1 − 1 q1 − 1  $     ™ $ ™  % E  %$ _ (b01 , . . . , b0r , b001 , . . . , b00s ) | ord    & "    r £ & " i = 1, . . . , r i = 1, . . . , r  "  # p q  p 1 q1 %" % h` ™ # h    c  " % k Ch   ¢ x ∈ Z∗n   j  " ' dj  s m b % $ u  x ∈ Z∗n E' b     (  C     "   ord % % k %"  " k  C  (Fp , Fq ) | ordn (x)  $ "  `  h & " $  E  E l #% ' (b01 , . . . , b0r , b001 , . . . , b00s ) x ∈ Z∗n   m  & bD   j = 1, . . . , ri , " $  bD %     % m b0i | ordFp (t) b0i | ordp0i (t) $ h %  a  i = 1, . . . , r,  z   j " " d " %  " q0 −1 qij 6≡ 1 (mod p0i ), C $  k h t p0 −1 pij (p − 1)(q − 1) #% k E'  t t 00 qij qij d d e / ,  / 1/   4/   1   2   1   4   /  7 ,   / 1/    1       1   - ,+ -  ( %  c    2 , , z   y   $ C %  E   a d  $ " k E a %   ¤   2 2  E Cy b   /     j  $ ( z %   b " " a     $   ™  " C &  E  E k  "  % h  5  l 4 f  f f ,  v ( C   5 f kb "  z  ™        $   j  E E     a ' " %& 'dc % $ # ™ E z  " m ( ( z    $ " k '"     j    $ " % k   & ' % $ # " D  ' $ E ` & _ e f %    $ y j   E d h   " k " % k' k    "    m   ' h " dc E E'  $ "` h  %  E $      j E h k '    k "    E B  $ ( % ) %" h  bD %   E # "  " bh " h c m j  $   E  " % k '  'dc   c  #  " % % h "  $ #` ™ % z   % %" h dc $ "  $   $           c b  E%    $  E d E'  " E  d "  E " ™  * h % %  x u (       h % % ' h       " "  %# " ' d E E  $    E h ™ %  $ ` ,¥ u B m   z $ $  #    "  $   ` j     % k h 'dc   c  #  " % % h " k%  "  %   $        C$       " E " i E  " '$  EC " $  E E % ™ h ( $ $ # dc "  z        'dc       $   k " d  "    $ " k E k E E h'   u m  (       ¤ ' 2 E'   5     h  ' E a % h   " D   & E # " h'  d h " ( z $   ' d E     $   E h %  $ # dc "  k  E  "  $ d h " ¥   4 f m  $  `        $ (  )  $ h '  " h E " & ` $ `  $ $  & '   %# y  k E  "  ( ( z ¢  $  " %&     '  E ' " % a  " ¥  f Rl     ¤ ,  s $  d " ( ( z  $    m    E   " m   ' d E   $       h  & g R %  $ # c  # %&        $  `   %dc    " E`  d E E'  E ™ C " $ "  E  '   h " d E E'  ( z    " E   E   " %h  a % h  E % h ¥e 4 ,  B " i E '  EC ( & ( $ " h w ™ ™ 9  9         4 24 ,                          (  ( ( ( %  ' h  & % ( z  %   %  C C$    d E h'    %  $ # dc $ "  c b  E%  % k h ` r r  (    , $ s d "  $ "  d " 4    " m   ' E $ " E " k ' '   "j ™  ' " E   ' *   v $     E E'  E      " 'h % # E E' % C   m E m  % %  " $ s ( ( * *   $  $ "   $   E % E  h b " '$  E " 2 f 2  x _      f  $ s k'  % " ' (   `  d E' % C  %  %        $ # ' ` $ "` ' ' b " C #%  E a  E r m _  4 ( ™ z  j     $   h'  dc b E% " % E  h & E c &  E  E E' $ E v    f  ,¥ % f h  ( ™ &  E j  d "j k'   e , f ( ™  j  $ $  $ k E h'    #      , ,¥ v " i &  E '   $   E E E  $ E ¤  % h  C " k $  ( ™ z        $     ' %  # hj   E E a  C % $ # bD % a  " c a h  C C #% E E   j  $   $  ` , m   h B   " " #          c &  E ' ™  ™    a E " %& h ™ Eb (    $  ™   k E a "     E h ,   f  y  j      b C  E'  C E "   $ ™ h %h '      ` n  g ' " %&     %  E k  $  m  E l C 4 d "   $   " d E h c "   (   $ $ E%  '  "  E m  E " '  &h    b '" E " '$ m    "  $ ' "  $ E'  E k   k   E % E ™ "  E  'd  ™ '    E j    " E #%  '  C " b " C #%  a E % $ # m %  ™     $     m c  # $ ! "   " E a % $    y   E     E Cy E h  % C E  ™   E  ( ™ ™    j   j    &  E b % $ ' b %  $ % h   E    $ E    ,    f   4 ¤ , u ™ ( E     &h   C #% '$ C  " b %" $ 'd#  a u ( %   " ' $ j ™ "  #   "    $ # %  " Cy ' " m $ #    s  $   $ C c  " $      " " z $ # ™ " d E N N  J ML    t ≡ ti (mod ni ) ™  &  E ' ™     E%  j e ™ Eb "       " D " ™ % $ # %dc ( n1 · . . . · nk  C #% ™   b %    '$ E 'h # t1 , . . . , t k te < n 1 · . . . · nk e E ™  m  '  E   $       E % kC   √ e s s 1 , . . . , sk "    E ' E C   t =s t t< t #  E  " $ E k  k E C #% e ( j #%  '  s ≡ si (mod ni ) i = 1, . . . , k 0 6 s < n 1 · . . . · nk t1 , . . . , t k t -  / ,  / 1/   4/   1   2   1   4    #%  d " d y  " $  +  * * (  5   fe f 4 e 24 , 5 *  ¥ (* ( ( ( ( 9 *   9  9 -         9 -  ;9         (   #   9 ?   *     4 4 ,  .  ( ( ™  * (  ( r k   &  "  * (     $   + % ( *    4 ,   ` , ¥ ¤¥ ? ?     z  d  "   y $  &  "     ( 4 ,    E %    ` ¥ ¥ ¤¥ (  (  *      m + u m    &  "   'd $  $   E   # %& (  ? Ž € Ž •{ _ A             * ( ¥ ¤ ¤2 2 f , e *  (* ( ( (   ( 9 -      9  -    9              9  9             ? z  ¥ (* (* ( ™ *  ™   9 9 e , e e 4 , , ¤   ™ ™ ( -          (   (  (    - e e    . . .  . .     / /  /  9    9 9           9                -                 '  B ™  $ ‡    f E %   E h'  ?= { Ž€Œ {  " i *E b k   {‹ , ,   $ m › ‘   f 5 (  u " i *E b k   + _ ™ ? Ž € Ž •{ ‡ {‹ , 2 ¤"  4 , ™ ( * (  #% y  d " f  $ # dc "   ž $ v  E%  ™  ( (  ‘ h  › ‘   ,   5 ? ? †‘ ‘ { “ ‘ , ( 4 4 4 , *    ( ™  ( 9   9 *  € ‡  +  " %& k  # %& ¤ e 4 ,         $   ž ‰‡ ž ™  ( ( ? ™ ?  m € ˆ |{ ,f A   z 3 e , ¤ e        -             ? ™ ?  .      ™ 9 ?      f *  *  9 ?  9           ( ( ( ( 5   d B _  !          - 9 9       9       <            4 ¤ * ( * $   + " " +  k   ` e 4 , 5 $ m E a %   % ™  ( ( (   $ # k " _ & ( ( * %? ? ¤ ¤ ¤ 5     $   %& C "     "  E   '   d " %& ‘ ‡ ‹ €  ‚  m A A ¤ ,       - ( ( ( * * * 4 , ¤ , 4 ,  (       * + j   ? ? 4 4 4 , ¡¢ £            -     9  -    9                   e ¤ 9 < 9  9 9 -       -      - ( ™ ( ( % E ? ™ ? ™ ?     E   "  $ + d " %& ‡ Ž€‹ ‰ { ‹ € €  †€ –    { ž , , A   * ( * (* ( ( ( e ¤ , , ef 4 , 5   ( ™   j '  %$ "b " h  u               * " *      9      9   -    1  1  <    r  EC # + ™ ? ™ ?   ¢   (  ) (  &  "    % $ #     C$  9 ?     - -   (  , ¥ ¤¥ B s ? ‰ •“ „ { ž ,¥                  <           9  5      ¤  ( ™ ( * $ ¥ ¥ ¤¥   * ( * (* ( ( ( * (  ( b k%  B + h ( j  z  * f ( d " &  9     ¤¥2 ef , 4 ¤ 24 , 5       ( ( ( ? z ? ? ™ ? z ž      % d E   E%  $ C #% k E'    &  ' " $ C$ z ¤ u s $  i ‡ ~  4       9  - 9  9   - 9                            ¤   + (  * , 4 4 ,  (  9  5 2 , ¤ f 4 ,     -  - * f2 (* ( 1      +   ™  ( ™  ( * (  ? ™ ? ™ ? z ( (  %& k E "      by  € œ  ~  ‰  ‡ { } Ž€ r  z z m   e  9   + -   9     9         -           1 <        ? ?    $ E #  E%  $ 'd# b `  m ( ™ ( *           9    <     9           -    9      9  ¥ ¥ ¤¥ 2 ¤     + x B   m (  ( $ " E ™ ™ ? ? ™ ? ? z $    a % d " %&  * ( * (* ( ( (      „ ! "  Ž { ‰ Œ ‘ ~ Ž {  Œ ‘  A   5  f ,¥ 4 f , 4 4 ,  ( ( ™ ( * z *   9 '  - 9          9   9<           -         4 42 ,  h i j + %      -  y   $ #  " ? ™ ? ? ? ? ™ ? ? ™ ? ? z *  '  E ¤    9     9 -           –                   ‰ Ž ‹Œ {  B  “ ˆ h'       ‰  { €Œ  € ‡ €‹ ‰ ƒ Œ{ “ ‘     , , 5  ( * (* ( ¤¥ f5 , ,  (  1 ™ ( ( ™ C   , e 4 , ¢ ( ( ™ * ( ( %  * *   +     <         9    ef 4 , ¤     -  4 m     & % ? ? ™ ™ ? ?

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