Стратегии речевого поведения в англоязычной среде.Стратегии поддержания контакта

Þ.Á. ÊÓÇÜÌÅÍÊÎÂÀ Ñòðàòåãèè ðå÷åâîãî ïîâåäåíèÿ â àíãëîÿçû÷íîé ñðåäå Ëåêöèè 5–8 Ìîñêâà Ïåäàãîãè÷åñêèé óíèâåðñèòåò «Ïåðâîå ñåíòÿáðÿ» 2006 Ó÷åáíûé ïëàí êóðñà Þëèÿ Áîðèñîâíà Êóçüìåíêîâà Ìàòåðèàëû êóðñà «Ñòðàòåãèè ðå÷åâîãî ïîâåäåíèÿ â àíãëîÿçû÷íîé ñðåäå». Ëåêöèè 5–8. Ì. : Ïåäàãîãè÷åñêèé óíèâåðñèòåò «Ïåðâîå ñåíòÿáðÿ», 2006. 44 ñ. Ó÷åáíî-ìåòîäè÷åñêîå ïîñîáèå Ðåäàêòîð Þ.Á. Êóçüìåíêîâà Êîìïüþòåðíàÿ âåðñòêà Ä.Â. Êàðäàíîâñêàÿ Ïîäïèñàíî â ïå÷àòü 12.02.2006. Ôîðìàò 60õ90/16. Ãàðíèòóðà «TimesET». Ïå÷àòü îôñåòíàÿ. Ïå÷. ë. 2,75. Óñë. ïå÷. ë. 5,0. Òèðàæ ýêç. Çàêàç ¹ Ïåäàãîãè÷åñêèé óíèâåðñèòåò «Ïåðâîå ñåíòÿáðÿ», óë. Êèåâñêàÿ, ä. 24, Ìîñêâà, 121165 http://edu.1september.ru  Þ.Á. Êóçüìåíêîâà, 2006  Ïåäàãîãè÷åñêèé óíèâåðñèòåò «Ïåðâîå ñåíòÿáðÿ», 2006 ¹ áð. Íàçâàíèå ëåêöèè 1 Ëåêöèÿ 1. Ïðåäïîñûëêè âûäåëåíèÿ ñòðàòåãèé ðå÷åâîãî ïîâåäåíèÿ 1 Ëåêöèÿ 2. Ñòðàòåãèè äèñòàíöèðîâàíèÿ 1 Ëåêöèÿ 3. Ñòðàòåãèè íàìåêà. Êîíòðîëüíàÿ ðàáîòà 1 1 Ëåêöèÿ 4. Ñòðàòåãèè óêëîíåíèÿ 2 Ëåêöèÿ 5. Ñìÿã÷åíèå ïîñðåäñòâîì âîïðîñîâ. Êîíòðîëüíàÿ ðàáîòà 2 2 Ëåêöèÿ 6. Ñòðàòåãèè ïîääåðæêè ñîáåñåäíèêà 2 Ëåêöèÿ 7. Ñòðàòåãèè ïîääåðæàíèÿ êîíòàêòà 2 Ëåêöèÿ 8. Íåêîòîðûå îñîáåííîñòè òðàêòîâêè íà÷àëà è çàâåðøåíèÿ áåñåäû. Èòîãîâàÿ ðàáîòà Ëåêöèÿ 5. Ñìÿã÷åíèå ïîñðåäñòâîì âîïðîñîâ  äàííîé ëåêöèè ìû ðàññìîòðèì ðàçëè÷íûå âîçìîæíîñòè äàëüíåéøåãî èñïîëüçîâàíèÿ ñòðàòåãèè ñìÿã÷åíèÿ ñíà÷àëà â ðóñëå îáùåãî ïîäõîäà ê ìåæëè÷íîñòíîìó âçàèìîäåéñòâèþ, à çàòåì â áîëåå óçêîì êîíòåêñòå. Äåìîêðàòè÷íàÿ èíäèâèäóàëèñòè÷åñêàÿ àíãëî-àìåðèêàíñêàÿ òðàäèöèÿ îáíàðóæèâàåò, êàê ìû óæå óïîìèíàëè, óíèâåðñàëèñòñêóþ òåíäåíöèþ ê îáùåíèþ. Îíà ïðîÿâëÿåòñÿ â èñïîëüçîâàíèè åäèíîîáðàçíîãî ïîäõîäà ê êîììóíèêàíòàì – â ïðîòèâíîì ñëó÷àå ïîä óãðîçó ñòàâèòñÿ ñîáëþäåíèå ñâÿùåííîãî êîäåêñà ðàâåíñòâà è ñïðàâåäëèâîñòè, îñíîâîïîëàãàþùèõ èíäèâèäóàëèñòè÷åñêèõ öåííîñòåé. Òàêîé óíèôèöèðîâàííûé ïîäõîä íàáëþäàåòñÿ â ñèòóàöèÿõ êàê íåôîðìàëüíîãî ñèììåòðè÷íîãî îáùåíèÿ (íåçàâèñèìî îò äèñòàíöèè «ïî âåðòèêàëè»), òàê è ôîðìàëüíîãî (â çàâèñèìîñòè îò äèñòàíöèè ïî îòíîøåíèþ ê âëàñòè è àñèììåòðè÷íîãî ðàñïðåäåëåíèÿ ñòàòóñíûõ ðîëåé). Ïðè ýòîì ïðåäïîëàãàåòñÿ, ÷òî ê êàæäîé êîíêðåòíîé ëè÷íîñòè, íàäåëåííîé ðàâíîé ñ îñòàëüíûìè ìåðîé îòâåòñòâåííîñòè, ïðèëîæèìû îáúåêòèâíûå ïðàâèëà.  ðå÷è «ïåðñîíàëüíàÿ îòâåòñòâåííîñòü» ïðîÿâëÿåòñÿ â âûñîêîé ÷àñòîòíîñòè èñïîëüçîâàíèÿ ëè÷íîãî ìåñòîèìåíèÿ 1-ãî ëèöà. 4 Ëåêöèÿ ¹ 5 Èçâåñòíàÿ êîììóíèêàòèâíàÿ íåïðèíóæäåííîñòü è íåôîðìàëüíîñòü, ïðèçâàííàÿ ñëóæèòü ñâèäåòåëüñòâîì äåìîêðàòè÷íîñòè, ðàñïðîñòðàíÿåòñÿ â ðàâíîé ìåðå è íà ÷ëåíîâ îáùåñòâà, íàõîäÿùèõñÿ íà ðàçíûõ ñòóïåíÿõ ñîöèàëüíîé ëåñòíèöû, ÷òî äàåò îñíîâàíèÿ èñïîëüçîâàòü òåðìèí «ñòàòóñíî èíäèôôåðåíòíûé» â îòíîøåíèè ñîöèàëüíî àñèììåòðè÷íîãî îáùåíèÿ. Áðèòàíöû, ìåíåå ýãàëèòàðíûå, ÷åì àìåðèêàíöû, îáíàðóæèâàþò îïðåäåë¸ííóþ ñêëîííîñòü ê ñîáëþäåíèþ èåðàðõèè è ýòèêåòà îáùåíèÿ (ïðîÿâëÿþùóþñÿ, êàê ïðàâèëî, â íåÿâíîé ôîðìå – â «àðèñòîêðàòè÷åñêîì» ïðîèçíîøåíèè, èñïîëüçîâàíèè òèòóëîâ íå òîëüêî â ëèòåðàòóðå, íî è ïðè óñòíîì îáùåíèè) íà ôîíå óñèëèâàþùåéñÿ òåíäåíöèè ê äåìîêðàòèçàöèè. Íà âåðáàëüíîì óðîâíå ýòà òåíäåíöèÿ ê äåìîíñòðàöèè äåìîêðàòè÷íîñòè è íåáîëüøîé äèñòàíöèè âëàñòè âûðàæàåòñÿ ïðåæäå âñåãî â ðàñøèðåíèè ñôåðû íåôîðìàëüíîãî îáðàùåíèÿ (â ïðèâåòñòâèÿõ, èñïîëüçîâàíèè ïåðâîãî èìåíè) ïðè ñèììåòðè÷íîì âçàèìîäåéñòâèè ëèö ðàçíîãî ðàíãà, íàïðèìåð íà÷àëüíèêà è îáñëóæèâàþùåãî ïåðñîíàëà, ïðîôåññîðà è ñòóäåíòîâ (÷òî îòíþäü íå ñâèäåòåëüñòâóåò îá èõ ôàêòè÷åñêîì ðàâíîïðàâíîì ïîëîæåíèè). Îòëè÷èòåëüíîé ÷åðòîé àíãëèéñêîãî îáðàùåíèÿ ê íåçíàêîìîìó àäðåñàòó ÿâëÿåòñÿ ïðåäïî÷òèòåëüíîå èñïîëüçîâàíèå ôîðìóë ïðèâëå÷åíèÿ âíèìàíèÿ – áåç íîìèíàòèâíîé îñíîâû (Hi / Hello èëè æå Excuse me è ïð.). Ïîäîáíîå âûðàæåíèå «äåìîêðàòèçìà» øèðîêî ðàñïðîñòðàíåíî ñðåäè àìåðèêàíöåâ, äëÿ êîòîðûõ âïîëíå åñòåñòâåííî íåôîðìàëüíîå ïðèâåòñòâèå ïåðâîãî âñòðå÷íîãî íà ïðîãóëêå, äîïóñòèìûì ñ÷èòàåòñÿ òàêæå çàãîâîðèòü ñ íåçíàêîìûìè ëþäüìè, ñòîÿ â î÷åðåäè. Èíòåðåñíî îòìåòèòü ðàçëè÷íóþ ìîòèâàöèîííóþ îðèåíòàöèþ äàííîãî ïîäõîäà. Äëÿ ðîññèÿí â àíàëîãè÷íûõ ñèòóàöèÿõ õàðàêòåð ìåæëè÷íîñòíîãî âçàèìîäåéñòâèÿ â áîëüøåé ñòåïåíè îáóñëîâëåí êîíòåêñòîì îáùåíèÿ: íàïðèìåð, â ðîññèéñêîé ãëóáèíêå åñëè è ïðèíÿòî ïðèâåòñòâîâàòü ïðîõîæèõ (êîòîðûå âñòðå÷àþòñÿ äàëåêî íå â òåõ æå êîëè÷åñòâàõ, êàê â ãóñòîíàñåë¸ííûõ ïóíêòàõ) èëè çàâåñòè ðàçãîâîð â î÷åðåäè, òî çà ýòèì ñòîèò, êàê ïðàâèëî, íåïîääåëüíûé èíòåðåñ ê ÷åëîâåêó è æåëàíèå óñòàíîâèòü ñ íèì êîíòàêò. Äëÿ áðèòàíöåâ è àìåðèêàíöåâ ýòî, êàê ïðàâèëî, ïðîñòî îáìåí ëþáåçíîñòÿìè, íå ïðåäïîëàãàþùèé íåïðåìåííîãî âñòóïëåíèÿ â ðàçãîâîð, à ñêîðåå, íàïðîòèâ, ñèãíàëèçèðóþùèé î çíàíèè ïðàâèë, îñíîâàííûõ íà îáîþäíîì ñòðåìëåíèè ñîõðàíèòü privacy, – ïîñëå ýòîãî ðèòóàëüíîãî îáìåíà ðåïëèêàìè êàæäàÿ ñòîðîíà îáû÷íî ïðåäïî÷èòàåò áûòü ïðåäîñòàâëåíà ñàìîé ñåáå (ñð. «äåæóðíàÿ óëûáêà»). Åñëè áåñåäà âñå æå çàâÿçàëàñü – êàê, íàïðèìåð, ìåæäó ñëó÷àéíûìè ïîïóò÷èêàìè â òðàíñïîðòå, – òî âåñüìà íå÷àñòî îíà âûõî- Ñìÿã÷åíèå ïîñðåäñòâîì âîïðîñîâ 5 äèò çà ðàìêè òðèâèàëüíîãî. Ëþáîïûòíà òàêæå íàáëþäàåìàÿ â ïîäîáíûõ ñèòóàöèÿõ îáùåíèÿ òåíäåíöèÿ áðèòàíöåâ äåìîíñòðèðîâàòü ñâî¸ âíèìàíèå ê èíîñòðàíöàì – è ýòî ïðè ñòîëü òðåïåòíîì îòíîøåíèè ê privacy! Àâòîðó íå ðàç äîâîäèëîñü âñòóïàòü â êîíòàêòû òàêîãî ðîäà, êîòîðûå, ïî íàáëþäåíèþ àìåðèêàíöà Ð. Ýêñòåëÿ, õîòÿ è ïðîòèâîðå÷àò ñòåðåîòèïó, îäíàêî äîñòàòî÷íî ðàñïðîñòðàíåíû. Ñîøë¸ìñÿ íà åãî îïèñàíèå òèïè÷íîãî äèàëîãà â ïðèãîðîäíîì ïîåçäå: “The conversation and questions followed a definite pattern: ‘How do you like our weather?’ ‘Where are you from in America?’ ‘Oh, I have a cousin in Kansas City. Now, is there any chance that you would know him?’ And so on I realized they were trying to be friendly and hospitable to a visitor, but it eventually became something of a nuisance”.1 Ñ äðóãîé ñòîðîíû, ïðèíöèïû äåìîêðàòè÷íîñòè è ðàâåíñòâà òðåáóþò îò ëþáîãî ó÷àñòíèêà êîììóíèêàöèè (íåçàâèñèìî îò ðàíãà) ñîáëþäåíèÿ îáùåïðèíÿòûõ ýòèêåòíûõ òðåáîâàíèé â îäèíàêîâîé ñòåïåíè, ÷òî îòðàæàåòñÿ â âûñîêîé ÷àñòîòíîñòè ôîðìàëüíîãî óïîòðåáëåíèÿ ôîðìóë âåæëèâîñòè â ñòàíäàðòíûõ ðå÷åâûõ ñèòóàöèÿõ (íàïðèìåð, ïðè âûðàæåíèè áëàãîäàðíîñòè, èçâèíåíèè è ïð.). Ïîä÷¸ðêíóòîå ñòðåìëåíèå íèâåëèðîâàòü äèñòàíöèðîâàííîñòü «ïî âåðòèêàëè» ïðîÿâëÿåòñÿ â êàæóùåéñÿ íåîáÿçàòåëüíîñòè ïîáóäèòåëüíûõ âûñêàçûâàíèé. Îíî îñíîâûâàåòñÿ íà ïðèìåíåíèè ñïåöèàëüíîãî ïåðå÷íÿ îáùåïðèíÿòûõ ðå÷åâûõ îáîðîòîâ äëÿ êîñâåííîãî âûðàæåíèÿ äèðåêòèâíîñòè äàæå ïðè íàëè÷èè ñîöèàëüíîé àñèììåòðèè, ÷òî îòðàæàåò ïðèíöèï íåâìåøàòåëüñòâà, ïðåäïîëàãàþùèé ñâîáîäó ëè÷íîñòè è íåäîïóñòèìîñòü îêàçàíèÿ ïðÿìîãî êîììóíèêàòèâíîãî äàâëåíèÿ. Ê ïîäîáíûì âûñêàçûâàíèÿì, òðåáóþùèì ñìÿã÷åíèÿ êîììóíèêàòèâíîãî âîçäåéñòâèÿ, îòíîñÿòñÿ íå òîëüêî ïðèêàçû è ïðîñüáû, íî òàêæå ñîâåòû, ïðåäëîæåíèÿ è äàæå ïðèãëàøåíèÿ (ñð.: ñîáëþäåíèå privacy). Òàêèì îáðàçîì, â àíãëîÿçû÷íîé êîììóíèêàòèâíîé êóëüòóðå øèðîêî ðàñïðîñòðàíåíî ôàòè÷åñêîå îáùåíèå ñ äîìèíèðóþùèì ïîâåðõíîñòíûì, à èíîãäà âûáîðî÷íûì âíèìàíèåì ê ïðîèñõîäÿùåìó (ñð.: ñîõðàíåíèå áðèòàíñêèõ òðàäèöèé small talk). Î÷åâèäíî, ÷òî àêöåíò íà ñîáëþäåíèè óñëîâíîñòåé – ò.å. îáùåïðèíÿòûõ íîðì êîììóíèêàòèâíîãî ïîâåäåíèÿ – íå âñåãäà ïðåäïîëàãàåò èñòèííî óâàæèòåëüíîå è âíóòðåííå çàèíòåðåñîâàííîå îòíîøåíèå ê ñîáåñåäíèêó, è íà óðîâíå ðå÷è îòðàæàåòñÿ â ÷àñòîì óïîòðåáëåíèè äåñåìàíòèçèðîâàííûõ ôîðìóë ïðèâåòñòâèÿ, ïðèãëàøåíèÿ â ãîñòè, 1 Öåíÿùèé ñâîþ íåçàâèñèìîñòü àìåðèêàíåö ïðåäïî÷åë, ïî åãî âûðàæåíèþ, çàðûòüñÿ â ãàçåòó (ñð. òæ. íåãàòèâíîå îòíîøåíèå ê small talk). 6 Ëåêöèÿ ¹ 5 ïðîùàíèÿ è äð.  ñîîòâåòñòâèè ñ óñèëèâàþùåéñÿ òåíäåíöèåé ê äåìîêðàòèçàöèè îáùåíèÿ âîçìîæíîñòü îêàçàíèÿ êîììóíèêàòèâíîãî âîçäåéñòâèÿ íà ñîáåñåäíèêà ïðè íàëè÷èè ñîöèàëüíîé àñèììåòðèè ïåðåíîñèòñÿ â ïëîñêîñòü êîñâåííûõ âûñêàçûâàíèé, ôîðìàëüíî íåèìïåðàòèâíûõ è íåïðèíóäèòåëüíûõ, îñòàâëÿþùèõ âíåøíþþ ñâîáîäó âûáîðà è ïðèçâàííûõ ñìÿã÷èòü íåïîñðåäñòâåííûé ýôôåêò îêàçûâàåìîãî äàâëåíèÿ.  ðóññêîé êîììóíèêàòèâíîé êóëüòóðå, ñ å¸ òðàäèöèîííûì íåôîðìàëüíûì âíèìàíèåì ê ÷åëîâåêó, åãî âíóòðåííåìó ìèðó, áîëåå ïðèåìëåìûì ÿâëÿåòñÿ «èíäèâèäóàëüíûé» ïîäõîä, îñíîâàííûé íà èíòóèöèè è ÷óòêîì âîñïðèÿòèè äóøåâíûõ ñîñòîÿíèé, à ïðàâèëà êîììóíèêàòèâíîãî ïîâåäåíèÿ îïðåäåëÿþòñÿ ñïåöèôèêîé êîíêðåòíîé ñèòóàöèè. Òàê, äëÿ ñèòóàöèé ôîðìàëüíîãî îáùåíèÿ ñîõðàíÿåòñÿ ñîáëþäåíèå èåðàðõèè è èñïîëüçîâàíèå ýòèêåòíûõ ôîðìóë ïðè íàëè÷èè ñîöèàëüíîé àñèììåòðèè; ïðè ýòîì íà ðå÷åâîì óðîâíå ðåãóëèðóþùèì ôàêòîðîì (ñâèäåòåëüñòâóþùèì îá èçìåíåíèè ñòåïåíè áëèçîñòè êîììóíèêàíòîâ) ìîæåò âûñòóïàòü èñïîëüçîâàíèå ðàçëè÷íûõ ôîðì îáðàùåíèÿ. Áîëüøàÿ äèñòàíöèÿ «ïî âåðòèêàëè» è àâòîðèòàðíîå ïîâåäåíèå ëèö, íàäåë¸ííûõ âëàñòüþ, äîïóñêàåò âîçìîæíîñòü îêàçàíèÿ ïðÿìîãî êîììóíèêàòèâíîãî âîçäåéñòâèÿ íà ñîáåñåäíèêà. Ñîîòâåòñòâåííî, ñâîáîäíîå èñïîëüçîâàíèå äèðåêòèâíûõ âûñêàçûâàíèé è ïðÿìîå ïîáóæäåíèå ÿâëÿþòñÿ íîðìîé, à âûáîð ñðåäñòâ âûðàæåíèÿ èìïåðàòèâà â çíà÷èòåëüíîé ìåðå îáóñëîâëåí ñîöèàëüíûì ïîëîæåíèåì ó÷àñòíèêîâ êîììóíèêàöèè. Äëÿ ðîññèÿí íåõàðàêòåðíî ÷àñòîå óïîòðåáëåíèå ðàñõîæèõ ýòèêåòíûõ ôîðìóë: small talk – «ë¸ãêàÿ ñâåòñêàÿ áåñåäà», ÿâëÿÿñü ïðîäóêòîì åâðîïåèçàöèè, èìåëà â Ðîññèè âåñüìà îãðàíè÷åííóþ ñôåðó ðàñïðîñòðàíåíèÿ, î÷åð÷åííóþ å¸ íàçâàíèåì. È åñëè â ñèòóàöèÿõ îôèöèàëüíîãî îáùåíèÿ ôîðìàëüíûå çíàêè âíèìàíèÿ ñ÷èòàþòñÿ íîðìîé, òî â ñèòóàöèÿõ îáùåíèÿ áûòîâîãî ê íèì, êàê ïðàâèëî, íå îáðàùàþòñÿ áåç îñîáîé íà òî íåîáõîäèìîñòè. Ïðåäñòàâëÿåòñÿ, ÷òî â îòëè÷èå îò àíãëèéñêèõ àíàëîãîâ ðóññêèå ðå÷åâûå ôîðìóëû íåñìîòðÿ íà ñîâðåìåííûå «äåìîêðàòè÷åñêèå» òåíäåíöèè ïîäâåðãëèñü äåñåìàíòèçàöèè â ãîðàçäî ìåíüøåé ñòåïåíè, è â ðóññêîÿçû÷íîì îáùåíèè îíè â áîëüøèíñòâå ñëó÷àåâ ïîêà åù¸ íå óòðàòèëè ñâîåé ñìûñëîâîé íàãðóçêè è ñîîòâåòñòâåííî ÷àùå èñïîëüçóþòñÿ ïî íàçíà÷åíèþ. Äëÿ îáùåíèÿ ñ ÷óæèìè è ìàëîçíàêîìûìè ëþäüìè õàðàêòåðíà áîëüøàÿ ñòåïåíü ôîðìàëüíîñòè è âíóòðåííåé ñêîâàííîñòè. Ïåðåõîä ê íåôîðìàëüíîìó îáùåíèþ, êàê ïðàâèëî, îòðàæàåò îïðåäå- Ñìÿã÷åíèå ïîñðåäñòâîì âîïðîñîâ 7 ë¸ííóþ ñòåïåíü áëèçîñòè çíàêîìñòâà èëè äîâåðèÿ è ñâèäåòåëüñòâóåò î äóøåâíîì ðàñïîëîæåíèè è îòêðûòîñòè – â îòñóòñòâèè êîòîðûõ îíî ìîæåò ðàñöåíèâàòüñÿ êàê ôàìèëüÿðíîñòü è «èãðà â äåìîêðàòèþ». Èíòåðåñíî â äàííîé ñâÿçè íàáëþäåíèå èíîñòðàíöåâ (Øóáàðò 1998), êîòîðûõ ïîðàæàëî, ñêîëü áðàòñêèì ÿâëÿåòñÿ îáû÷àé íàçûâàòü äðóã äðóãà íå ïî òèòóëàì è çâàíèÿì, à ïî èìåíè è îò÷åñòâó, è îíè òðàêòîâàëè ýòó îñîáåííîñòü êàê ïðèçíàê ïîäëèííîãî äåìîêðàòèçìà.  öåëîì, íåôîðìàëüíîå îáùåíèå ðîññèÿíå ñòàâÿò ãîðàçäî âûøå ôîðìàëüíîãî, ïîñêîëüêó ýòî ïîçâîëÿåò óñòàíîâèòü (èëè ïðîâåðèòü) ìåæëè÷íîñòíûå îòíîøåíèÿ, – íåäàðîì íà ðÿäîâûõ îôèöèàëüíûõ ìåðîïðèÿòèÿõ (ãäå ãëàâíîå – ïðèñóòñòâèå, à çàïðîãðàììèðîâàííûå âûñòóïëåíèÿ – ôîðìàëüíîñòü) íåðåäêè ñëó÷àè îñëàáëåíèÿ âíèìàíèÿ ê ãîâîðÿùèì. Îãðîìíàÿ ÷èñëåííîñòü (áîëåå 3 òûñ.) ëåêñèêî-ôðàçåîëîãè÷åñêèõ åäèíèö, îáðàçóþùèõ ïîëå îáùåíèå2, òàêæå ñâèäåòåëüñòâóåò î çíà÷èìîñòè äàííîãî ïîíÿòèÿ â ðóññêîé êóëüòóðå.  îòëè÷èå îò ñîñðåäîòî÷åííûõ íà ëè÷íûõ èíòåðåñàõ, âíóòðåííå çàìêíóòûõ áðèòàíöåâ è àìåðèêàíöåâ ðîññèÿíå âûñîêî öåíÿò îáùèòåëüíîñòü, îñíîâàííóþ íà âçàèìíîì äîâåðèè è íåïîääåëüíîì èíòåðåñå ê ñîáåñåäíèêó. Ïðèìå÷àòåëüíî â ýòîì êîíòåêñòå îòñóòñòâèå â àíãëèéñêîì ÿçûêå ïðÿìûõ àíàëîãîâ ðóñ. îáùàòüñÿ3, à òàêæå ðóñ. õîäèòü/ïðèãëàøàòü â ãîñòè; ñî÷åòàíèÿ ñ ãëàãîëàìè visit / invite over íåëüçÿ ñ÷èòàòü ýêâèâàëåíòàìè, òàê êàê èõ ñåìàíòèêà ïåðåäàåò äàëåêî íå âñå îòòåíêè çíà÷åíèé, ïðèñóòñòâóþùèå â ðóññêîì âàðèàíòå. Òàêèì îáðàçîì, ðàññìîòðåíèå ïîäõîäîâ ê ìåæëè÷íîñòíîìó âçàèìîäåéñòâèþ òàêæå îáíàðóæèâàåò îïðåäåëåííóþ äâîéñòâåííîñòü àíãëîÿçû÷íîãî êîììóíèêàòèâíîãî ïîâåäåíèÿ íà ôîíå îäíîçíà÷íîñòè ðóññêîÿçû÷íîãî. Ñ îäíîé ñòîðîíû, íàáëþäàåòñÿ òåíäåíöèÿ ê äåìîêðàòè÷íîìó íåôîðìàëüíîìó îáùåíèþ, ïðèçâàííîìó ñâèäåòåëüñòâîâàòü îá óâåëè÷åíèè ñòåïåíè áëèçîñòè ó÷àñòíèêîâ êîììóíèêàöèè íåçàâèñèìî îò èõ ñîöèàëüíîé ïðèíàäëåæíîñòè (íà îñíîâå íåáîëüøîé äèñòàíöèè âëàñòè), à ñ äðóãîé – ïðèîðèòåòíîñòü ñîáëþäåíèÿ ôîðìàëüíîñòåé, ÷èñòî ïîâåðõíîñòíîå âíèìàíèå êàê ê ó÷àñòíèêàì îáùåíèÿ, òàê è ê åãî ñîäåðæàòåëüíîé ñòîðîíå (ñð.: ôîðìàëèçì èíäèâèäóàëèñòè÷åñêèõ êóëüòóð). 2 Ñì. ïîäðîáíåå èññëåäîâàíèå Ì.Â. Øàìàíîâîé, 2002:60.  ñâîåé ðàáîòå Ò.Â. Ëàðèíà äîêàçûâàåò ýòî íà ðÿäå ïðèìåðîâ, ïîä÷åðêèâàÿ, â ÷àñòíîñòè, íåâîçìîæíîñòü èñïîëüçîâàíèÿ ãëàãîëà associate êàê ýêâèâàëåíòíîãî âàðèàíòà ïåðåâîäà (Ëàðèíà 2003: 41). 3 8 Ëåêöèÿ ¹ 5 Íåêîòîðûå õàðàêòåðíûå ÷åðòû ñòèëÿ ôîðìàëüíîãî è íåôîðìàëüíîãî îáùåíèÿ Ñìåøåíèå ñòèëåé – åù¸ îäíà ëîâóøêà ïðè îïðåäåëåíèè ñòðàòåãèè âåæëèâîãî ðå÷åâîãî ïîâåäåíèÿ. Ôîðìàëüíîå è íåôîðìàëüíîå àíãëîÿçû÷íîå îáùåíèå èìåþò ðÿä õàðàêòåðíûõ ðàçëè÷èé. ×òîáû íå âûãëÿäåòü ñìåøíûì è íå îêàçàòüñÿ ãðóáûì ïðè âûáîðå òåõ èëè èíûõ ïîòåíöèàëüíî âîçìîæíûõ ðå÷åâûõ ñðåäñòâ, ìîæíî ïîñòàðàòüñÿ íàìåòèòü õîòÿ áû íåêîòîðûå îðèåíòèðû, ïîçâîëÿþùèå îñîçíàííî îòíîñèòüñÿ ê èõ óïîòðåáëåíèþ. Òàê, ôîðìàëüíîå îáùåíèå, â öåëîì ãîðàçäî áîëåå âåæëèâîå, õàðàêòåðèçóåòñÿ îòñóòñòâèåì ïðÿìîëèíåéíîñòè è ñîîòâåòñòâåííî áîëåå äëèííûìè ôðàçàìè, ÷àñòî ñ îòòåíêîì ïðåóâåëè÷åíèÿ, íàïðèìåð: FS: Thank you very much âìåñòî êîðîòêîãî IFS: Thanks; èëè FS: Would you be so kind as to give me that book? – IFS: Can you give me that book, please? (ñì. òàêæå íèæå Request formulae)  íåôîðìàëüíîé áåñåäå ìåíüøå çàïðåòíûõ òåì, äîïóñêàåòñÿ îáðàùåíèå ïî èìåíè è áîëüøå äåòàëåé ëè÷íîãî õàðàêòåðà. Íàïðèìåð: IFS: I’m going to see my tutor about my graduation paper. – FS: I have an appointment with my tutor. Ðàçëè÷èÿ òàêîãî ðîäà îáîáùåííî ïðåäñòàâëåíû â Òàáë. 1. Ñôåðà óïîòðåáëåíèÿ âëèÿåò è íà âûáîð ñëîâ: â íåôîðìàëüíîé ðå÷è îí ñâîäèòñÿ ê îãðàíè÷åííîìó áàçîâîìó ñëîâàðþ, à ôîðìàëüíîå îáùåíèå ÷àñòî ñòðîèòñÿ íà îñíîâå ðàñøèðåííîé ëåêñèêè. Ðàñïðîñòðàí¸ííûì ÿâëÿåòñÿ èñïîëüçîâàíèå «ó÷¸íûõ» ñëîâ ëàòèíñêîãî è ãðå÷åñêîãî ïðîèñõîæäåíèÿ èëè ìåíåå ÷àñòîòíûõ ãëàãîëîâ âìåñòî îáùåóïîòðåáèìûõ ôðàçîâûõ. Íàïðèìåð: IFS: teach, begin, understand – FS: educate, commence, comprehend; èëè IFS: put off , do up – FS: postpone, redecorate).  íåôîðìàëüíîì ðàçãîâîðå (â îòëè÷èå îò ôîðìàëüíîãî) âîçìîæíî èñïîëüçîâàíèå òàáóèðîâàíûõ ñëîâ, ñëåíãà è ðàçãîâîðíûõ îáîðîòîâ. Íàïðèìåð, äëÿ óñèëåíèÿ ÷àñòî óïîòðåáëÿþòñÿ ïðèëàãàÒàáëèöà 1 Social Language Differences in: Informal Speech (IFS) Formal Speech (FS) Ñìÿã÷åíèå ïîñðåäñòâîì âîïðîñîâ 9 Òàáëèöà 2 Vocabulary Differences in: Informal Speech (IFS) Formal Speech (FS) tendencies in word usage to be imprecise the choice of words common words (limited basic their “learned” counterparts vocabulary) to be precise and specific dealing with a) fillers more frequent b) colloquial expressions fewer ‘all purpose’ words fewer taboo on slang and swear rare words òåëüíûå òèïà super, great, smashing, horrible, awful è ò.ï. (ñð. overstatement).  öåëîì íàáëþäàåòñÿ òåíäåíöèÿ ê ìåíüøåé òî÷íîñòè: òèïè÷íî óïîòðåáëåíèå ðàçíîãî ðîäà «äåæóðíûõ» ñëîâ è âûðàæåíèé ìíîãîöåëåâîãî íàçíà÷åíèÿ òèïà thing, guy, place, fine, good, bad; what-do-you-call-it, whatsisname, you-know-what-I-mean; well, you see, òîãäà êàê ôîðìàëüíàÿ ðå÷ü îïèðàåòñÿ íà áîëåå òî÷íûé ñëîâàðü è çíà÷åíèå èñïîëüçóåìîé ëåêñèêè êîíêðåòèçèðîâàíî. Ðàçëè÷èÿ òàêîãî ðîäà îáîáùåííî ïðåäñòàâëåíû â Òàáë. 2. Òåíäåíöèÿ ê êðàòêîñòè è ìåíüøåé îïðåäåëåííîñòè íåôîðìàëüíîé ðå÷è ïðîÿâëÿåòñÿ íà óðîâíå ãðàììàòèêè â óïîòðåáëåíèè óïðîù¸ííûõ èëè ñîêðàù¸ííûõ ãðàììàòè÷åñêèõ êîíñòðóêöèé è ñòðåìëåíèè èçáåãàòü äëèííûõ îáîðîòîâ è ñëîæíûõ ïðåäëîæåíèé. (Òàáë. 3) Ðÿä øèðîêî èñïîëüçóåìûõ ôîðìóë âåæëèâîñòè ÿâëÿåòñÿ ïðîñòî ôîðìàìè óñå÷¸ííûõ ïðåäëîæåíèé, â êîòîðûõ ìîæåò îïóñêàòüñÿ ïîäëåæàùåå èëè ñêàçóåìîå: Nice day! Good idea! Know what? (Sounds) great! Seen John? Must be off. Íåêîòîðûå ïðèìåðû ðàçëè÷èé â óïîòðåáëåíèè ãðàììàòè÷åñêèõ êîíñòðóêöèé ïðåäñòàâëåíû â Òàáë. 4.  êà÷åñòâå èëëþñòðàöèè ðàçëè÷íûõ âîçìîæíîñòåé ðåãóëÿöèè ñòåïåíè âåæëèâîñòè ðàññìîòðèì íåêîòîðûå òàêòèêè ñìÿã÷åíèÿ êàòåãîðè÷íîñòè àäåêâàòíûå óðîâíþ ñëîæíîñòè êîíêðåòíîé êîììóíèêàòèâíîé çàäà÷è. Âàðüèðîâàíèå ñòåïåíè âåæëèâîãî îáðàùåÒàáëèöà 3 politeness formulae shorter, more direct; less emphasised indirect, lengthy, emphasised forms of address first names or nicknames surnames preceded by titles dealing with a) taboo fewer taboo topics more conventions structures simple complicated very few details possible sentences often reduced often long and complex b) personal information few details possible Grammar Differences in: Informal Speech (IFS) Formal Speech (FS) 10 Ëåêöèÿ ¹ 5 Òàáëèöà 4 Some Grammar Structures in Formal and Informal English Structure Formal 1) wh- question words In what century did he live? with prepositions 2) who/whom 3) whom/which/ that in relative structures 4) personal pronouns 5) determiners + of + sg./ pl. Informal What century did he live in? The book about which I’ve told you The book I’ve told you about A difficult person with whom to live Whom did you show it? A difficult person to live with The lady whom you met at the party.. The lady you met at the party The ring which he gave her The ring he gave her I think that it is quite important I think it’s quite important It was she who... It was her that... Who’s that?- It’s I/ It’s she/ Bob and I It’s me / It’s her/ Bob and me She is as slim as I am She is as slim as me I swim better than he does I swim better than him None /Neither of you works hard None / Neither of you work hard Has any of them been examined? Have any of them been examined? Who did you show it? íèÿ íàãëÿäíî ïðîÿâëÿåòñÿ â óïîòðåáëåíèè ðàñïðîñòðàí¸ííûõ ðå÷åâûõ ôîðìóë â ðàìêàõ òàêòèêè «ñìÿã÷åíèÿ âîïðîñîâ». Î÷åâèäíî, ÷òî ïðè îáùåíèè ñ ìàëîçíàêîìûìè ëþäüìè îáû÷íî íå ïðèíÿòî ñïðàøèâàòü î ÷¸ì-òî «â ëîá», ïðàâèëà õîðîøåãî òîíà êàê â àíãëèéñêîì, òàê è â ðóññêîì ÿçûêå îñíîâàíû íà öåëîé ñèñòåìå òàê íàçûâàåìûõ ôîðìóë âåæëèâîñòè, êîòîðûå ïî ìåðå âîçðàñòàíèÿ ôîðìàëüíîñòè ñòàíîâÿòñÿ òåì âû÷óðíåå, ÷åì ñëîæíåå êîììóíèêàòèâíàÿ çàäà÷à, ñð.: Can I borrow your penknife, Jim? Mr. Jenkins, I hope you don’t mind my asking but I wonder if it is possible for you to lend me your car? Òàêèì îáðàçîì, ñìÿã÷åíèå êàê ïðèåì, ðàñïðîñòðàíÿñü è íà ñàìó ôîðìó âîïðîñîâ, ïîðîæäàåò ãðàäàöèþ ñòåïåíåé âåæëèâîñòè â çàâèñèìîñòè îò ðå÷åâîé ñèòóàöèè. Ôîðìóëû âåæëèâîãî ñîâåòà, çàïðîñà èíôîðìàöèè, ïðåäëîæåíèÿ ñòðîÿòñÿ íà èñïîëüçîâàíèè öåëîãî ðÿäà ñìÿã÷àþùèõ ñðåäñòâ, èëè ëåêñèêî-ñèíòàêñè÷åñêèõ ìîäèôèêàòîðîâ, êîòîðûå ìîæíî âàðüèðîâàòü ñîîòâåòñòâåííî òðåáîâàíèÿì ïðåäëàãàåìîé ðå÷åâîé ñèòóàöèè. Ñìÿã÷åíèå ïîñðåäñòâîì âîïðîñîâ 11 softening devices functions probability phrases e.g.: requesting, asking for verbs of thinking information/opinion, suggesting, right-phrases giving advice, asking mind-phrases permission Íàèáîëåå ðàñïðîñòðàíåííûìè ÿâëÿþòñÿ: ìîäàëüíûå ìîäèôèêàòîðû, ñðåäè êîòîðûõ ðàçëè÷àþòñÿ: ãðóïïà åäèíèö ñî çíà÷åíèåì âåðîÿòíîñòè; ìàðêåðû ñóáúåêòèâíîé ìîäàëüíîñòè; êîíñòðóêöèè ñ right è êîíñòðóêöèè ñ mind. Ìîäèôèêàòîðû ñî çíà÷åíèåì âåðîÿòíîñòè òèïà possibly, by (any) chance, happen ÷àñòî óïîòðåáëÿþòñÿ ïðè âûðàæåíèè âåæëèâîãî âîïðîñà èëè ïðîñüáû, ïðèäàâàÿ èì îòòåíîê ïðåäïîëîæèòåëüíîñòè, êàê áû ñòàâÿ ïîä ñîìíåíèå âîçìîæíîñòü òîãî, î ÷¸ì ñïðàøèâàåòñÿ: Could you possibly show me how it works? Have you got an extra copy of this article by any chance? Äëÿ äàííîé òàêòèêè òàêæå òèïè÷íî èñïîëüçîâàíèå ìîäèôèêàòîðà I wonder, âûïîëíÿþùåãî ôóíêöèþ äîïîëíèòåëüíîãî ñìÿã÷åíèÿ ïðîñüáû èëè ðàçðåøåíèÿ: I wondered if you could possibly lend me your bicycle? I wonder if it is possible for me to join you in the evening? Ìàðêåðû ñóáúåêòèâíîé ìîäàëüíîñòè ñ ãëàãîëàìè ìûøëåíèÿ – I think, I believe, I consider, I suppose õàðàêòåðíû äëÿ ôîðìóë âåæëèâîãî âîïðîñà èëè ïðîñüáû, à òàêæå – ñîâåòà è ïðåäëîæåíèÿ. Îíè ìîãóò âñòðå÷àòüñÿ â ôîðìàõ è ñ îòðèöàíèåì, è áåç íåãî, è ñ ìàðêåðàìè âåðîÿòíîñòè, óñèëèâàÿ ýôôåêò ñìÿã÷åíèÿ, ñð.: Do you think you could (possibly) show me how it works? Don’t you think it might be an idea to spend a weekend in the mountains? Òàê íàçûâàåìûå right-phrases øèðîêî èñïîëüçóþòñÿ â òåõ ñëó÷àÿõ, êîãäà íàäî âåæëèâî ñïðîñèòü ðàçðåøåíèÿ èëè óçíàòü ÷ü¸-òî ìíåíèå: Alright if I close the window? Îíè òàêæå âñòðå÷àþòñÿ â ôîðìóëàõ ñ ãëàãîëàìè ìûøëåíèÿ: Am I right to suppose you’re not against his offer? Mind-phrases òàêæå ðàñïðîñòðàíÿþòñÿ íà ôîðìóëû ðàçðåøåíèÿ è ïðîñüáû, ñð.: Do you mind if I close the window? èëè Would you mind sitting in the last row? Êîíñòðóêöèÿ ñ ìîäèôèêàòîðîì I hope äåëàåò ïîäîáíûå ïðîñüáû åù¸ áîëåå âåæëèâûìè è ôîðìàëüíûìè, ñð.: I hope you don’t mind speaking tomorrow?  ðóññêîì ÿçûêå èìååòñÿ áîãàòûé àðñåíàë àíàëîãè÷íûõ ñðåäñòâ ñìÿã÷åíèÿ. Ñð.: Êàê âû äóìàåòå; íàäåþñü, âû íå âîçðàæàåòå; èíòåðåñíî; âû ñëó÷àéíî íå... è ïð. 12 Ëåêöèÿ ¹ 5 Òàáëèöà 5 Requests and Offers Graded According to Degrees of Politeness degree mind-phrases wonder/think ****** I hope you don’t but I wonder m ind(my asking) ***** **** *** ** Would you m ind if I. . . probability phrases if it m ight be but would it be at all possible for me to... I w as if you could wondering Do you think you could Could you possibly possibly possibly Don’t you t hi nk possible it m ight be an idea/ Might it be an idea/ Would it be If you could... I’d be Do you m ind if I. . . Do you m ind my... I wonder You couldn’t Do you think You could if you could ... you could ... Anyone m ind if I. . . Have you ever thought of ... * modal verbs Hey, tag alright alright if I could you? couldn’t you? Is it alright if I. . . Alright if I. . . Do you happen to Have you ... by any chance? I thought I m ight ... I’d like to... If I were you I’d 9 I don’t seem to... I need Some You haven’t... . . . h a v e y ou ? Îñíîâíàÿ ñëîæíîñòü, îäíàêî, çàêëþ÷àåòñÿ â ïðàâèëüíîì âûáîðå è êîìáèíàöèè ýòèõ âûðàæåíèé è èñïîëüçîâàíèè èõ àäåêâàòíî ïðåäëàãàåìîé ñèòóàöèè, èíà÷å ãîâîðÿùèé ðèñêóåò ëèáî âûãëÿäåòü Ñìÿã÷åíèå ïîñðåäñòâîì âîïðîñîâ 13 ñìåøíûì, èñïîëüçóÿ ñëèøêîì âû÷óðíûå ôðàçû â íåôîðìàëüíîé îáñòàíîâêå, ëèáî ïîïàñòü â íåëîâêîå ïîëîæåíèå, êîãäà íåäîñòàòî÷íî «èçûñêàííîå» îáðàùåíèå ìîæåò áûòü âîñïðèíÿòî êàê ïàíèáðàòñòâî âî âðåìÿ îôèöèàëüíîé áåñåäû. Óìåñòíîñòü óïîòðåáëåíèÿ ðàññìàòðèâàåìûõ ðå÷åâûõ ñðåäñòâ ïðè ðåøåíèè ðàçëè÷íûõ êîììóíèêàòèâíûõ çàäà÷ ñëóæèò îäíèì èç âîçìîæíûõ êðèòåðèåâ îòáîðà ó÷åáíîãî ìàòåðèàëà äëÿ àíàëèçà è ïîñëåäóþùåãî óñâîåíèÿ. Ñëåäóåò òàêæå îáðàòèòü âíèìàíèå íà ïðîáëåìó àäåêâàòíîãî ïåðåâîäà àíãëèéñêèõ ðå÷åâûõ ôîðìóë, êîòîðûå â ñâåòå îòìå÷åííîãî âûøå ðàñõîæäåíèÿ ñåìàíòè÷åñêîãî è ïðàãìàòè÷åñêîãî çíà÷åíèé íåðåäêî âûçûâàþò çàòðóäíåíèÿ. Ýòà ïðîáëåìà äîñòàòî÷íî îñòðî îùóùàåòñÿ ïðè ÷òåíèè ïåðåâîäíîé ëèòåðàòóðû, êîãäà â ñòðåìëåíèè òî÷íåå ïåðåäàòü çíà÷åíèå àíãëîÿçû÷íîãî îðèãèíàëà ïåðåâîä÷èê äåëàåò àêöåíò èìåííî íà ñåìàíòè÷åñêîì çíà÷åíèè, îñíîâàííîì íà ïîíèìàíèè áóêâàëüíîãî ñìûñëà, ðåçóëüòàòîì ÷åãî ÿâëÿþòñÿ èçðå÷åíèÿ òèïà: ß èíòåðåñîâàëñÿ, íå ìîãëè áû âû ëþáåçíî íàïèñàòü ìíå ðåêîìåíäàöèþ, ïðèâîäÿùèå â çàìåøàòåëüñòâî ðîññèéñêîãî ÷èòàòåëÿ. Ïðåäñòàâëÿåòñÿ, ÷òî îäíèì èç ïîäõîäîâ ê ðåøåíèþ äàííîé ïðîáëåìû ìîæåò áûòü ïîäáîð ýêâèâàëåíòíîé ðóññêîÿçû÷íîé ôîðìóëû óìåñòíî ñ òî÷êè çðåíèÿ íîñèòåëÿ ðóññêîãî ÿçûêà. Î÷åâèäíî, ÷òî âûáîð êîíêðåòíûõ ÿçûêîâûõ ìîäåëåé îáóñëîâëåí öåëûì ðÿäîì ôàêòîðîâ, òàêèõ êàê ñòåïåíü ñëîæíîñòè ïîñòàâëåííîé êîììóíèêàòèâíîé çàäà÷è, îòíîøåíèÿ ìåæäó ñîáåñåäíèêàìè, ýìîöèîíàëüíî-ïñèõîëîãè÷åñêèé êîíòåêñò è ïð. Íåêîòîðûå íàèáîëåå õàðàêòåðíûå ñëó÷àè ãðàäàöèé ôîðìóë ïî ñòåïåíè âåæëèâîñòè ïðåäñòàâëåíû â òàáë. 5. 14 Ëåêöèÿ ¹ 5 Ëåêöèÿ 6. Ñòðàòåãèè êîììóíèêàòèâíîé ïîääåðæêè ñîáåñåäíèêà Ýìîöèîíàëüíàÿ ñäåðæàííîñòü áðèòàíöåâ è àìåðèêàíöåâ èìååò è îáîðîòíóþ ñòîðîíó – àôôåêòàöèþ. Ïðè ýòîì ÷àñòî èñïîëüçóåìûé àíãëèéñêèé òåðìèí emotional êàê áû ðàçäâàèâàåòñÿ íà «ñîáñòâåííî ýìîöèîíàëüíûé» è «àôôåêòèâíûé», ñ àêöåíòîì íà ïîñëåäíèé, îáíàðóæèâàÿ ñóùåñòâåííîå ðàñõîæäåíèå ñ òðàêòîâêîé ïîíÿòèÿ ýìîöèîíàëüíîñòü â ðóññêîé êóëüòóðå. Ïðåäñòàâëÿåòñÿ, ÷òî ýòî îòíþäü íå ñëó÷àéíî è îòðàæàåò ãëóáèííûå ðàçëè÷èÿ íà ÿçûêîâîì óðîâíå: îñíîâíîå çíà÷åíèå ðóññêîãî òåðìèíà ñâÿçûâàåòñÿ ñ ïðîÿâëåíèÿìè èñêðåííåãî ÷óâñòâà. Òàê, åùå â XIX âåêå Ï. Õîõðÿêîâ, ñ÷èòàë çàäóøåâíîñòü îñîáûì êà÷åñòâîì ðóññêîé áåñåäû1 , îòìå÷àÿ èñïîëüçîâàíèå â íåé áîëüøîãî êîëè÷åñòâà «çàäóøåâíûõ» ñëîâ (Õîõðÿêîâ 1889). Äâîéñòâåííîñòü ïðè âûðàæåíèè ýìîöèé â îïðåäåëåííîé ìåðå ñâîéñòâåííà ïðåäñòàâèòåëÿì îáåèõ àíãëîÿçû÷íûõ êóëüòóð. Ñ îäíîé ñòîðîíû, îíè îáíàðóæèâàþò ñêëîííîñòü ê ñåíòèìåíòàëüíîñòè è ýêçàëüòàöèè. Áðèòàíöû, íàïðèìåð, ìîãóò íå ñòåñíÿÿñü âûðàçèòü ñâîè ÷óâñòâà, áîëåå ñîñòðàäàÿ, ñêàæåì, ëþáèìûì æèâîòíûì, íåæåëè ñâîèì ñîáðàòüÿì, – ïîñëåäíèå, ñîãëàñíî òðàäèöèÿì ïðîòåñòàíòñêîãî âîñïèòàíèÿ, äîëæíû ñàìîñòîÿòåëüíî ñïðàâëÿòüñÿ ñ æèçíåííûìè íåâçãîäàìè, íå ïåðåêëàäûâàÿ îòâåòñòâåííîñòü íà äðóãèõ. Áîëåå èìïóëüñèâíûå è íåïîñðåäñòâåííûå â ñâîèõ ïðîÿâëåíèÿõ àìåðèêàíöû ñïîñîáíû â áûòîâûõ ñèòóàöèÿõ ê ñïîíòàííûì «âûïëåñêàì» èçóìëåíèÿ èëè âîñòîðãà, ñòðàõà èëè âîçìóùåíèÿ, îáúÿñíÿÿ èõ êàê íåèçáåæíóþ ðåàêöèþ íà ñòðåññ2 . Ñ äðóãîé ñòîðîíû, â îáåèõ êóëüòóðàõ îäèíàêîâî ðàñïðîñòðàíåíî âûðàæåíèå ýìîöèé â ñòðàòåãè÷åñêèõ öåëÿõ, ÷òî ïðîÿâëÿåòñÿ â îáðàùåíèè ê ïðåóâåëè÷åíèþ. Ïðè ýòîì íàáëþäàþòñÿ íåêîòîðûå ðàçëè÷èÿ â ñôåðàõ óïîòðåáëåíèè. Äëÿ áðèòàíöåâ ïðåóâåëè÷åíèå, êàê ïðàâèëî, îãðàíè÷èâàåòñÿ óñòàíîâêîé íà ïîâûøåííîå âíèìàíèå ê ñîáåñåäíèêó è âûðàæàåòñÿ â ïðåóâåëè÷åííî-ýìîöèîíàëüíîé îöåíêå åãî ïîñòóïêîâ, êà÷åñòâ, ïåðåæèâàíèé, â èçëèøíåé ýêñïðåññèâíîñòè ïîõâàëû, áëàãîäàðíîñòè, êîìïëèìåíòîâ, ñî÷óâñòâèÿ, ñîæàëåíèÿ è ïð., òîãäà êàê àìåðèêàíöû, ñ÷èòàÿ ñåáÿ «ðåàëèñòàìè», íåðåäêî îáíàðóæè1 Îí ñâÿçûâàë ñ íåé îñîáåííîñòè ðóññêîãî ñëîâîîáðàçîâàíèÿ è ñîîòâåòñòâåííî íàëè÷èå áîëüøîãî êîëè÷åñòâà «çàäóøåâíûõ» ñëîâ (òèïà çàâåòíûé, íåíàãëÿäíûé, ðîäèìûé è ñëîâ ñ óìåíüøèòåëüíî-ëàñêàòåëüíûìè ñóôôèêñàìè òèïà ãîëóá÷èê, äóøåíüêà, ñâåòèê, çàçíîáóøêà è ïð.), âûçûâàþùèõ òðóäíîñòè ïðè ïåðåâîäå íà äðóãèå ÿçûêè (òàì æå). 2 Ñì. òæ. Sternin, Sternina. 2003: 55 Ñìÿã÷åíèå ïîñðåäñòâîì âîïðîñîâ 15 âàþò ñêëîííîñòü ê ãèïåðáîëèçàöèè ëè÷íîé íåãàòèâíîé îöåíêè (êîòîðóþ áðèòàíöû, êàê ïðàâèëî, ïðåóìåíüøàþò).  ýòîì îòðàæàåòñÿ áóëüøàÿ ïðÿìîëèíåéíîñòü è íåïîñðåäñòâåííîñòü âûðàæåíèÿ ñîáñòâåííîãî îòíîøåíèÿ, õàðàêòåðíàÿ äëÿ êîììóíèêàòèâíîãî ïîâåäåíèÿ àìåðèêàíöåâ (â ÷åì îíè îò÷àñòè ñáëèæàþòñÿ ñ ðîññèÿíàìè). Äëÿ àíãëîÿçû÷íîãî îáùåíèÿ â öåëîì õàðàêòåðíî ïîíèæåíèå ýêñïðåññèâíîñòè è ïðàãìàòè÷åñêè îáóñëîâëåííîå îãðàíè÷åíèå ïðîÿâëåíèÿ ýìîöèé îïðåäåë¸ííûìè ñèòóàöèÿìè îáùåíèÿ. Ñòðàòåãèÿ êîììóíèêàòèâíîé ïîääåðæêè ñîáåñåäíèêà âêëþ÷àåò ïðåæäå âñåãî òàêòèêè óñèëåíèÿ çíà÷èìîñòè âûñêàçûâàíèÿ è ïðåóâåëè÷åíèÿ, èëè èíà÷å, îverstatement, ïðèäàþùèå âûñêàçûâàíèþ (â îòëè÷èå îò understatement) áîëüøóþ âåñîìîñòü, ÷òî ìîæíî òðàêòîâàòü êàê èçáûòî÷íóþ, ÷ðåçìåðíóþ âåæëèâîñòü, ôóíêöèÿ êîòîðîé – ïðîäåìîíñòðèðîâàòü èëè ïîä÷åðêíóòü ñâîé èíòåðåñ ê ïàðòíåðó ïî êîììóíèêàöèè. Óïðîùåííî ãîâîðÿ, ýòî êàê áû understatement ñî çíàêîì ïëþñ. Åñëè ê ñòðàòåãèè ïðåóìåíüøåíèÿ îáû÷íî îáðàùàþòñÿ ïðè íåîáõîäèìîñòè ñíèçèòü ýìîöèîíàëüíîå âîçäåéñòâèå (íåãàòèâíîé) îöåíêè (êàê ïðàâèëî, ëè÷íîé), íå ðàñêðûâàÿ ãëóáèíó ñîáñòâåííûõ ïåðåæèâàíèé, òî ñòðàòåãèÿ îverstatement, èñïîëüçóåòñÿ ñ öåëüþ ñôîêóñèðîâàòüñÿ íà ÷óâñòâàõ è ýìîöèÿõ äðóãèõ ëþäåé, ê êîòîðûì â ñîîòâåòñòâèè ñ ïðàâèëàìè âåæëèâîñòè òðåáóåòñÿ ïîâûøåííîå âíèìàíèå. Ñëåäóåò ïðè ýòîì îòìåòèòü, ÷òî ñåìàíòè÷åñêîå çíà÷åíèå îverstatement ðàñõîäèòñÿ ñ ïðàãìàòè÷åñêèì, òàê êàê â ïðåóâåëè÷åíèè (êàê è â ïðåóìåíüøåíèè) íàëè÷åñòâóåò òàêæå ýëåìåíò íåèñêðåííîñòè: îáðàùàÿñü ê äàííîé ñòðàòåãèè, êîììóíèêàíòû ïîäðàçóìåâàþò ìåíüøå, ÷åì ãîâîðÿò. Îäíàêî èìåííî â ïðàãìàòè÷åñêîì àñïåêòå âûñêàçûâàíèÿ, ñîäåðæàùèå îverstatement, íå ìîãóò ñ÷èòàòüñÿ «ëæèâûìè», ïîñêîëüêó, êàê ñïðàâåäëèâî îòìå÷àåò Ò.Â. Ëàðèíà, ôóíêöèÿ ïðåóâåëè÷åíèÿ ñîñòîèò â äîñòèæåíèè ïðàãìàòè÷åñêîãî ðåçóëüòàòà: «ß õî÷ó, ÷òîáû òåáå áûëî ïðèÿòíî» (Ëàðèíà. 2003:163), è â ýòîì ñâîåì æåëàíèè àíãëîãîâîðÿùèé ñîáåñåäíèê âïîëíå èñêðåíåí. Ýôôåêò îverstatement ìîæåò äîñòèãàòüñÿ, óñëîâíî ãîâîðÿ, ïîñðåäñòâîì äâóõ òàêòèê: óñèëåíèÿ è ïðåóâåëè÷åíèÿ è èñïîëüçóåòñÿ ïðåèìóùåñòâåííî â ýìîòèâíûõ ðå÷åâûõ àêòàõ äëÿ âûðàæåíèÿ ïîõâàëû, áëàãîäàðíîñòè, ñî÷óâñòâèÿ, ñîæàëåíèÿ è ïð. Îáðàòèìñÿ ê ðàññìîòðåíèþ íåêîòîðûõ êîíêðåòíûõ òàêòèê ïðåóâåëè÷åíèÿ. (Ñì. òàáë. 1) Óñèëåíèå çíà÷èìîñòè âûñêàçûâàíèÿ (intensification) êàê òàêòèêà ýìîòèâíîãî îáùåíèÿ ñîçíàòåëüíî èñïîëüçóåòñÿ êîììóíèêàíòàìè â öåëÿõ îêàçàíèÿ áëàãîïðèÿòíîãî âîçäåéñòâèÿ íà îêðóæàþùèõ è îáû÷íî íàáëþäàåòñÿ ïðè âûðàæåíèè áëàãîäàðíîñòè, ñî÷óâñòâèÿ, 16 Ëåêöèÿ ¹ 6 Òàáëèöà 1 Òàêòèêà óñèëåíèÿ ýìîöèîíàëüíîãî âîçäåéñòâèÿ (Intensification) Overstatement Through Intensification Functions Intensifiers emphasising exaggerating degree adverbs as emphasisers words as intensifiers e.g.: gratitude, praising, complimenting, apology, sympathy, refusal, enquiry èçâèíåíèÿ, îòêàçà, âåæëèâîãî âîïðîñà è ïð., êîãäà ñ ïîìîùüþ ýìîöèîíàëüíî îêðàøåííûõ ôðàç ìîæíî ïîâëèÿòü íà âîñïðèÿòèå ñîáåñåäíèêîì ñèòóàöèè, ñîõðàíÿÿ äîáðîæåëàòåëüíóþ àòìîñôåðó âåæëèâîãî îáùåíèÿ, ïðàâèëàìè êîòîðîãî ïðåäïèñûâàåòñÿ áîëüøå êîíöåíòðèðîâàòüñÿ íà ÷óâñòâàõ äðóãîãî (ñì. ãë. 3). Ïðèäàòü ñâîèì ñëîâàì ýêñïðåññèâíóþ îêðàñêó ìîæíî ïðè ïîìîùè ðàçëè÷íûõ ñðåäñò⠖ ìàðêåðîâ óñèëåíèÿ èëè èíòåíñèôèêàòîðîâ (íàçûâàåìûõ òàêæå emphasisers èëè upgraders), óñèëèâàþùèõ ñòåïåíü âîçäåéñòâèÿ âûñêàçûâàíèÿ íà àäðåñàòà. Ðàññìîòðèì íåêîòîðûå ðàñïðîñòðàí¸ííûå ñïîñîáû. (Ñì. òàáë. 2) Èíòåíñèôèêàòîðàìè, èñïîëüçóåìûìè äëÿ óñèëåíèÿ ýìîöèîíàëüíî-îöåíî÷íîãî âîçäåéñòâèÿ âûñêàçûâàíèÿ, ÿâëÿþòñÿ ïðåæäå âñåãî íàðå÷èÿ ñòåïåíè, òàêèå êàê how, so, too, very, much, most è äð., è ýêñïðåññèâíûå íàðå÷èÿ extremely, terribly, awfully è äð., óñèëèâàþùèå çíà÷åíèå ïðèëàãàòåëüíûõ è ñîîòâåòñòâåííî âûïîëíÿþùèå çäåñü èíóþ ôóíêöèþ – ýìôàòè÷åñêóþ.  îòëè÷èå îò ñòðàòåãèè understatement, ãäå íåêîòîðûå èç íèõ âûñòóïàëè ïðåèìóùåñòâåííî â îòðèöàòåëüíûõ êîíñòðóêöèÿõ, â ðàìêàõ ñòðàòåãèè îverstatement ýòè íàðå÷èÿ óïîòðåáëÿþòñÿ äåêëàðàòèâíî. Òàáëèöà 2 Òåõíèêà èíòåíñèôèêàöèè Emphasising Formulae of Overstatement Statement gratitude Thank you (ever) so much /very much indeed! You’re too kind! Thank you. gratitude I’m so much obliged to you! How can I ever thank you! Thank you. gratitude I’m so grateful!/ I can’t tell you how grateful I am! Thank you. sympathy I’m so sorry! / I can’t tell you how sorry I am! I am sorry. apology I’m extremely / awfully / (ever) so sorry (but...) Sorry (but...) refusal I’m very much afraid, I can’t join you. Sorry (but...) Ñòðàòåãèè ïîääåðæêè ñîáåñåäíèêà 17 Êàê ïðàâèëî, â ëþáîé êóëüòóðíîé òðàäèöèè âûðàæåíèå áëàãîäàðíîñòè èëè èçâèíåíèÿ (îñîáåííî êîãäà ðå÷ü èäåò íå î ïóñòÿêàõ) íå áûâàåò ëàêîíè÷íûì, è ïðàâèëà ïðèëè÷èÿ òðåáóþò «ðàññûïàòüñÿ â ëþáåçíîñòÿõ», íå îãðàíè÷èâàÿñü ïðîñòûìè thank you èëè sorry. È åñëè äëÿ ðîññèÿí â ïîäîáíûõ ñèòóàöèÿõ ñòåïåíü óñèëåíèÿ (è ñîîòíîñèìàÿ ñ íåþ «èçûñêàííîñòü» è âû÷óðíîñòü âûðàæåíèé) íàïðÿìóþ çàâèñèò îò ñëîæíîñòè êîììóíèêàòèâíîé çàäà÷è è ñîîòâåòñòâåííî îò êîíòåêñòà, òî â àíãëèéñêîì ÿçûêå, ïî ìíåíèþ ìíîãèõ èññëåäîâàòåëåé3 , îáå ýòè äåñåìàíòèçèðîâàííûå åäèíèöû ïðåâðàòèëèñü â ôîðìàëüíûå ìàðêåðû âåæëèâîñòè, ïðàãìàòè÷åñêàÿ ôóíêöèÿ êîòîðîé – íå áëàãîäàðíîñòü èëè èçâèíåíèå, à îêàçàíèå âíèìàíèÿ, äåìîíñòðàöèÿ âçàèìíîé ðàñïîëîæåííîñòè; îá ýòîì òàêæå ñâèäåòåëüñòâóåò ïîâûøåííàÿ ÷àñòîòíîñòü óïîòðåáëåíèÿ äàííûõ ìàðêåðîâ. Ò.Â. Ëàðèíà ïðèâîäèò ëþáîïûòíîå çàìå÷àíèå î òîì, ÷òî àíãëè÷àíå, ñàìè îñîçíàâàÿ ñåìàíòè÷åñêóþ îïóñòîøåííîñòü ñâîèõ ôîðìóë è ñòðåìÿñü ê òîìó, ÷òîáû èõ áëàãîäàðíîñòü èëè èçâèíåíèå çâó÷àëè áîëåå èñêðåííå, ïðèáåãàþò ê ðàçëè÷íûì ñïîñîáàì óñèëåíèÿ (Owen. 1983: 119). Òåõíèêà äîïîëíèòåëüíîãî âîçäåéñòâèÿ («ðàçâ¸ðíóòàÿ» îöåíêà è ïîâòîð) Òàêòèêà ýìîöèîíàëüíîãî âîçäåéñòâèÿ íå ñâîäèòñÿ ê óñèëåíèþ ôîðìóë áëàãîäàðíîñòè è èçâèíåíèÿ, à âêëþ÷àåò äåìîíñòðàöèþ ïîâûøåííîãî âíèìàíèÿ ê àäðåñàòó, êîòîðîå â çàâèñèìîñòè îò êîíêðåòíîé êîììóíèêàòèâíîé çàäà÷è ìîæåò ïðîÿâëÿòüñÿ â ôîðìå ðàçâ¸ðíóòûõ êîìïëèìåíòîâ, ñëîâ ñî÷óâñòâèÿ, âûðàæåíèÿ ñîæàëåíèÿ è ò.ï. È, õîòÿ äàëüíåéøàÿ ñôåðà åå ðàñïðîñòðàíåíèÿ íå ïîääà¸òñÿ ÷åòêîé êëàññèôèêàöèè, òåì íå ìåíåå ïðåäñòàâëÿåòñÿ âîçìîæíûì ðàññìîòðåòü íåñêîëüêî õàðàêòåðíûõ ïðèìåðîâ. (Ñì. òàáë. 3) Î÷åâèäíî, ÷òî â òðàäèöèÿõ àíãëèéñêîé êîììóíèêàòèâíîé êóëüòóðû, ñ ÿðêî âûðàæåííîé òåíäåíöèåé ê ôîðìàëèçìó, îáùåïðèíÿòîå âûðàæåíèå ýìîöèé ìîæåò òðåáîâàòü äîïîëíèòåëüíîãî óñèëåíèÿ – êàê îòðàæåíèå îòìå÷åííîãî âûøå ñòðåìëåíèÿ ïðîÿâèòü íåïîääåëüíûå ÷óâñòâà è çàñòàâèòü ñîáåñåäíèêà ïîâåðèòü èõ èñòèííîñòè. Íàèáîëåå ÷àñòîòíûì íà óðîâíå ðå÷è ÿâëÿåòñÿ óñèëåíèå ýòèõ ôîðìóë, à òàêæå äîïîëíèòåëüíîå èñïîëüçîâàíèå ðàçâ¸ðíóòûõ ýìîöèîíàëüíî-îöåíî÷íûõ ðåïëèê (â ïðîäîëæåíèå ñàìîé ôîðìóëû), íàñûùåííûõ «äîáàâî÷íûìè» çíàêàìè âíèìàíèÿ: âîñòîðæåííîé îöåíêîé, õâàëåáíûìè îòçûâàìè è ò. ï. 3 Ñì., íàïðèìåð, Hymes. 1971:69; à òàêæå ïîäðîáíóþ áèáëèîãðàôèþ îá ýòîì: Ëàðèíà. 2003:207. 18 Ëåêöèÿ ¹ 6 19 Òàêòèêà ïîä÷åðêíóòîãî ïðåóâåëè÷åíèÿ Òàáëèöà 3 Evaluating Function Ñòðàòåãèè ïîääåðæêè ñîáåñåäíèêà Overstatement Statement compliment You were always so good at cooking but this You’re really a good cook. tea party was truly a masterpiece! Those cakes Thank you. were simply unforgettable. I really loved them. I must have a copy of your wonderful recipe. interruption I suppose you’re very busy now but it’s too Sorry (to interrupt) urgent to wait. I do hope it won’t take too much of your precious time. Cð.: Thank you for your lovely party! It was such a distraction for everyone. All those extremely funny surprises! That was very considerate of you! Ïîäîáíûå îáÿçàòåëüíûå «ïðèëîæåíèÿ» ê îñíîâíîé «òåìå», êàê ïðàâèëî, íåîäíîêðàòíî ïîâòîðÿþòñÿ è âàðüèðóþòñÿ â ïðîöåññå small talk è ñîäåðæàò íå òîëüêî îöåíêó ñàìîãî ïðåäìåòà áëàãîäàðíîñòè, íî è äîñòàòî÷íî ðàçâ¸ðíóòûå êîìïëèìåíòû â àäðåñ ñîáåñåäíèêà ïî ïîâîäó åãî êà÷åñòâ èëè äåéñòâèé (è çäåñü áðèòàíöû îáû÷íî äåìîíñòðèðóþò ñâîå óìåíèå ñîáëþäàòü ÷óâñòâî ìåðû, ïîñêîëüêó, ðàçóìååòñÿ, â òàêèõ ñèòóàöèÿõ âàæíî íå ïåðåóñåðäñòâîâàòü). Àíàëîãè÷íàÿ òàêòèêà â òðàäèöèÿõ ðóññêîé êîììóíèêàòèâíîé êóëüòóðû òàêæå èìååò ìåñòî, íî ãîðàçäî ìåíüøå ðàñïðîñòðàíåíà, è â îòëè÷èå îò òðàäèöèé àíãëî-àìåðèêàíñêîé «äåìîêðàòè÷åñêîé» êóëüòóðû íå èñïîëüçóåòñÿ óíèôèöèðîâàííî âî âñåõ ñëó÷àÿõ æèçíè. Äëÿ ðåøåíèÿ àíàëîãè÷íûõ çàäà÷ àäåêâàòíîãî ðåàãèðîâàíèÿ â ðóññêîì ÿçûêå èìååòñÿ ïîõîæèé íàáîð ðå÷åâûõ ñðåäñòâ (òèïà ïðåìíîãî áëàãîäàðåí; âû òàê äîáðû; êàê ìèëî ñ âàøåé ñòîðîíû; âåñüìà ñîæàëåþ; óæàñíî äîñàäíî è ïð.), âûáîð êîòîðûõ, ðàâíî êàê è ñàì õàðàêòåð óñèëåíèÿ, íàïðÿìóþ çàâèñÿò îò öåëîãî ðÿäà ôàêòîðîâ, òàêèõ êàê àñèììåòðè÷íîñòü îòíîøåíèé ñîáåñåäíèêîâ, õàðàêòåð ïîñòàâëåííîé çàäà÷è, ñòåïåíü ñëîæíîñòè êîììóíèêàòèâíûõ òðåáîâàíèé, çàäàâàåìûõ âûáðàííîé ëèíèåé ïîâåäåíèÿ, è ïð. Ïðåäñòàâëÿåòñÿ, îäíàêî, ÷òî áûëî áû áîëüøèì óïðîùåíèåì ñâåñòè îverstatement ëèøü ê ïðîñòðàííûì âîñêëèöàíèÿì ïî ïîâîäó òîãî, êàê âàì ïðèÿòíî èëè æàëü, – ñòðàòåãèÿ êîììóíèêàòèâíîé ïîääåðæêè ýôôåêòèâíà ïðè ðåøåíèè öåëîãî ðÿäà äðóãèõ ðå÷åâûõ çàäà÷, è, ïîìèìî òàêòèêè óñèëåíèÿ, ïðåäïîëàãàåò îïîðó íà òàêòèêó ïîä÷¸ðêíóòîãî ïðåóâåëè÷åíèÿ, ê ðàññìîòðåíèþ êîòîðîé ìû è ïåðåõîäèì. Òàêòèêà ïîä÷åðêíóòîãî ïðåóâåëè÷åíèÿ ñîñòîèò â äåìîíñòðàöèè ïîâûøåííîãî âíèìàíèÿ ê ñîáåñåäíèêó, åãî ýìîöèÿì, ëè÷íûì êà÷åñòâàì èëè äåéñòâèÿì è ñëóæèò ñâîåãî ðîäà äàëüíåéøèì ðàçâèòèåì òàêòèêè óñèëåíèÿ. Óñëîâíî â ðàìêàõ äàííîé òàêòèêè ìîæíî âûäåëèòü äâå âçàèìîäîïîëíÿþùèå òåõíèêè: ãèïåðáîëèçàöèþ è äâîéíîå óñèëåíèå. Ðàññìîòðèì íàèáîëåå ðàñïðîñòðàíåííûå ïðèåìû. (Ñì. òàáë. 4) Íàáîð èíòåíñèôèêàòîðîâ, èñïîëüçóåìûõ äëÿ ïðåóâåëè÷åíèÿ, â ðàìêàõ äàííîé òàêòèêè â îñíîâíîì ñâîäèòñÿ ê èñïîëüçîâàíèþ ýêñïðåññèâíûõ ýìîöèîíàëüíî îêðàøåííûõ ñëîâ, òàêèõ, íàïðèìåð, êàê ãëàãîëû enjoy, adore, love, hate, die (for), dream (âìåñòî íåéòðàëüíûõ like, dislike, want, think) èëè ïðèëàãàòåëüíûå òèïà happy, delighted (â çíà÷åíèè glad), flourishing (â çíà÷åíèè in good health), à òàêæå ïðèëàãàòåëüíûå òèïà super, great, smashing, horrible, awful, silly, stupid è ò.ï., êîòîðûå â òàêèõ ñëó÷àÿõ äåñåìàíòèçèðóþòñÿ è óïîòðåáëÿþòñÿ êàê èíòåíñèôèêàòîðû (intensifiers). Íàèáîëåå ïîêàçàòåëüíû â ýòîì ïëàíå âûøåïðèâåä¸ííûå îáùåïðèíÿòûå ôîðìóëû. Ñð.: “How are you?” – “I’m fine, thank you.” “Would you like to go there?” – “I’d love to.” èëè ìåíåå ôîðìàëüíîå âûðàæåíèå ñâîåãî îòíîøåíèÿ: ‘How’s it going?’ – ‘Great!’; ‘I’m happy to see you here!’; ‘I can’t agree more!’ Òàáëèöà 4 Òåõíèêà ãèïåðáîëèçàöèè Exaggerating Functions Overstatement Statement greeting formulae How are you? – I’m fine, thank you. I’m well, thank you request formulae I wonder if it is at all possible for me to...? Is it possible...? accepting Would you like a cup of coffee? Yes, I’m dying for it. Yes, please. attitude I’m delighted to know that you’re flourishing. I’m glad you’re well. attitude I’ll go nuts if you hum that tune one more time! I’ll be very upset enquiry How silly of me to (ask you /about/ such things) Could you tell me 20 Ëåêöèÿ ¹ 6  ñèòóàöèÿõ íåôîðìàëüíîãî îáùåíèÿ ïðåóâåëè÷èâàòü ìîæíî íå òîëüêî ïîëîæèòåëüíûå ýìîöèè (îäíàêî â òàêèõ ñëó÷àÿõ îòâåòñòâåííîñòü, êàê ïðàâèëî, áåðóò íà ñåáÿ); äëÿ ýòèõ öåëåé èñïîëüçóþòñÿ ðàçãîâîðíûå êëèøå òèïà I’ll scream/ go bananas (= I’ll be irritated), I’ll kill him (= I’ll be very cross); I’ll go nuts (= I’ll be upset) è ïð. Ýìôàòè÷åñêèå íàðå÷èÿ (òèïà just, really) ìîãóò ïðèäàâàòü ïîäîáíûì âûñêàçûâàíèÿì îòòåíîê äîïîëíèòåëüíîãî ïðåóâåëè÷åíèÿ, íàïðèìåð: I’ll just die. Ïåðåéäåì ê ðàññìîòðåíèþ íåêîòîðûõ äàëüíåéøèõ âîçìîæíîñòåé ñîçäàíèÿ ýòîãî äîïîëíèòåëüíîãî ýôôåêòà ïðåóâåëè÷åíèÿ. (Ñì. òàáë. 5) Ëåêñè÷åñêèå è ãðàììàòè÷åñêèå ñóïåðëàòèâû (brilliant, marvellous, fantastic, gorgeous, superb, kindest, warmest, most beautiful è ò.ï.) â ñî÷åòàíèè ñ âûøåóïîìÿíóòûìè íàðå÷èÿìè-èíòåíñèôèêàòîðàìè (òèïà just, really è äð.) ñîçäàþò ýôôåêò äâîéíîãî óñèëåíèÿ, ïîä÷¸ðêèâàÿ çíà÷åíèå ïðèëàãàòåëüíûõ, è áåç òîãî äîñòàòî÷íî ýêñïðåññèâíûõ. Thank you for a most lovely party! That was absolutely marvellous! Truly fantastic! Ê òåõíèêå äâîéíîãî ïðåóâåëè÷åíèÿ íåðåäêî îáðàùàþòñÿ â ïðîöåññå íåôîðìàëüíîãî îáùåíèÿ, îñîáåííî â òåõ ñëó÷àÿõ, êîãäà êîììóíèêàíòû ñòàðàþòñÿ òàêèì îáðàçîì ïåðåäàòü ñâîå íåôîðìàëüíîå «èñêðåííåå» îòíîøåíèå (ïðè ýòîì ïîâûøåííàÿ ýìîöèîíàëüíîñòü ÷àùå îñòàåòñÿ îðèåíòèðîâàííîé íà ñàìîãî ãîâîðÿùåãî). Äëÿ ýòèõ öåëåé òàêæå èñïîëüçóåòñÿ ýêñïðåññèâíàÿ ëåêñèêà â ñî÷åòàíèè ñ ìîäàëüíûìè ãëàãîëàìè è ñîñëàãàòåëüíîå íàêëîíåíèå. Cð., íàïðèìåð: I’d just die without my computer. – I can’t manage without my computer. I wish the ground would open up and swallow me when – I was so ashamed Òàáëèöà 5 Òåõíèêà äâîéíîãî ïðåóâåëè÷åíèÿ Functions Overstatement Statement apologizing I really hate to bother you at this early hour but... Excuse me... praising I just love our new car. I really enjoyed your present. I like your present complimenting You’re so brilliant at organising things! You’re good at/kind. attitude I simply cannot live without my car/I’d just die I need/ miss without him! attitude I was absolutely mortified when they found my I was very ashamed diary Ñòðàòåãèè ïîääåðæêè ñîáåñåäíèêà 21 ×àñòîòíîñòü îáðàùåíèÿ ê ïðåóâåëè÷åíèþ îòðàæàåòñÿ íå òîëüêî â ôîðìóëàõ ðàçãîâîðíîé, íî è îôèöèàëüíî-äåëîâîé ðå÷è, ÷òî óêàçûâàåò íà ÷èñòî ôîðìàëüíîå âíèìàíèå ê àäðåñàòó è íà ñóùåñòâóþùèå ðàñõîæäåíèÿ ìåæäó ñåìàíòè÷åñêèì è ïðàãìàòè÷åñêèì çíà÷åíèåì òàêèõ âûñêàçûâàíèé. Ãîâîðÿ î ïðåóâåëè÷åíèè, ñëåäóåò îòìåòèòü òðóäíîñòü ÷åòêîé êëàññèôèêàöèè, ïîñêîëüêó ýòîò ïðèåì âûõîäèò äàëåêî çà ïðåäåëû êîíêðåòíîãî íàáîðà âûøåóïîìÿíóòûõ ðå÷åâûõ ñðåäñòâ.  ðàìêàõ äàííîé ñòðàòåãèè ìîæíî îáîçíà÷èòü íåêîòîðûå ñòðàòåãè÷åñêèå íàïðàâëåíèÿ, ïîçâîëÿþùèå ñîñòàâèòü îáùåå ïðåäñòàâëåíèå î âîçìîæíîñòÿõ åå èñïîëüçîâàíèÿ. Òàê, åñëè âû âûíóæäåíû êîãî-òî ïîòðåâîæèòü, ñêàæåì, â íåóðî÷íîå âðåìÿ, òî, ïðèíîñÿ ñâîè èçâèíåíèÿ (â çàâèñèìîñòè îò ñåðüåçíîñòè ïðè÷èíÿåìîãî áåñïîêîéñòâà), âàì ïðèäåòñÿ: 1) ïîä÷åðêíóòü, ÷òî âû ñàìè èñïûòûâàåòå ÷óâñòâî íåëîâêîñòè (I hate to bother you during the lecture / I ‘m awfully sorry to interrupt your lecture, but) 2) âûäâèíóòü ðÿä äîñòàòî÷íî âåñêèõ ïðè÷èí, çàñòàâèâøèõ âàñ ïîéòè íà ýòó êðàéíþþ ìåðó (the head of our department insisted that it is absolutely urgent) 3) ïîñòàðàòüñÿ íà ñëîâàõ ñâåñòè åãî äî ìèíèìóìà (Could I make a very brief announcement? I won’t be a second) Âìåñòî òîãî ÷òîáû íàïðÿìóþ ñêàçàòü ëåêòîðó: Dr. Smith, I’m (really) sorry for interrupting you, but I’ve got an urgent message for your students. Íåóäèâèòåëüíî, ÷òî ñòåïåíü «íåîäíîçíà÷íîñòè» èçëîæåíèÿ âîçðàñòàåò ïðÿìî ïðîïîðöèîíàëüíî ñëîæíîñòè ïîñòàâëåííîé çàäà÷è, è êîìáèíàöèÿ âûøåóïîìÿíóòûõ ðå÷åâûõ ñðåäñòâ äàåò âîçìîæíîñòü âûáîðà è îðèåíòèð äëÿ èõ èñïîëüçîâàíèÿ àäåêâàòíî êîììóíèêàòèâíîé ñèòóàöèè. Ñ äðóãîé ñòîðîíû, àíãëîãîâîðÿùèå ñîáåñåäíèêè, ñòðîãî ïðèäåðæèâàþùèåñÿ ïðàâèëà small talk, ñòðåìÿòñÿ âñÿ÷åñêè ðàñïîëîæèòü ê ñåáå ñîáåñåäíèêà, íåèçìåííî îáðàùàÿñü ê ñòðàòåãèè ïðåóâåëè÷åíèÿ (äàæå åñëè âûñêàçûâàåìàÿ îöåíêà íå âïîëíå ñîîòâåòñòâóåò äåéñòâèòåëüíîñòè èëè íå ñîâïàäàåò ñ åãî ìíåíèåì): 1) ãîâîðÿ òî, ÷òî òîìó õîòåëîñü / áûëî áû ïðèÿòíî óñëûøàòü (Mary! I haven’ seen you for ages! I can’t believe my eyes!) 2) ïðåóâåëè÷èâàÿ çàñëóãè ïàðòíåðà è ñâîè ñëàáîñòè (This may sound a stupid question but I’d like to know how you managed not to change at all in the last ten years) 3) íå ñêóïÿñü íà ïîõâàëó è äåëàÿ êîìïëèìåíòû ìíîãîêðàòíî è ïî ðàçëè÷íûì ïîâîäàì (The reason I asked you is because you 22 Ëåêöèÿ ¹ 6 were always so good at cooking. I really loved those unforgettable parties you gave us...) Âûáîð ðå÷åâûõ ñðåäñòâ â ïîäîáíûõ ñèòóàöèÿõ, êàê â ðóññêîì, òàê è â àíãëèéñêîì ÿçûêå, îïðåäåëÿåòñÿ êîíòåêñòîì áåñåäû, è çàðàíåå «çàïðîãðàììèðîâàòü» ìîæíî ëèøü íåêîòîðûé íàáîð ýìîöèîíàëüíî îêðàøåííûõ ñëîâ, ïîäîáíî ïðèâåä¸ííûì ïðèìåðàì.  çàêëþ÷åíèå îòìåòèì, ÷òî ïîñòîÿííîå âíèìàíèå ê ñîáåñåäíèêó, âûðàæàåìîå â êîìïëèìåíòàõ èëè ïðåóâåëè÷åííî õâàëåáíûõ îòçûâàõ ïðàêòè÷åñêè ïî ëþáîìó ïîëîæèòåëüíîìó ïîâîäó (à ÷àñòî è áåç ïîâîäà, íàïðèìåð â ðàñõîæèõ ôîðìóëàõ ïðèâåòñòâèÿ, áëàãîäàðíîñòè, èçâèíåíèÿ) è, ðàçóìååòñÿ, â «äåæóðíûõ» óëûáêàõ, ðîññèÿíàìè âîñïðèíèìàåòñÿ êàê ÷ðåçìåðíîå.  ðóññêîì ÿçûêå èìååòñÿ áîãàòûé àðñåíàë îöåíî÷íî-ýêñïðåññèâíûõ ñðåäñòâ äëÿ âåðáàëüíîãî âûðàæåíèÿ ïîâûøåííîãî èíòåðåñà ê ñîáåñåäíèêó, îäíàêî, ïîñêîëüêó â ðóññêîé êîììóíèêàòèâíîé êóëüòóðå ôàòè÷åñêîå îáùåíèå íå ÿâëÿåòñÿ ïðèîðèòåòíûì, ðå÷åâûå ôîðìóëû àíàëîãè÷íûå àíãëèéñêèì, íå èìåþò ñòîëü øèðîêîãî ðàñïðîñòðàíåíèÿ è äèôôåðåíöèðóþòñÿ ïî ñôåðàì óïîòðåáëåíèÿ. Íåñìîòðÿ íà íàìåòèâøóþñÿ â ïîñëåäíåå âðåìÿ (ïîä âëèÿíèåì èíäèâèäóàëèñòè÷åñêèõ êóëüòóð) òåíäåíöèþ ê èõ èñïîëüçîâàíèþ â «÷èñòî ïðàãìàòè÷åñêèõ öåëÿõ» ïðè ôîðìàëüíîì îáùåíèè â ïðîöåññå àñèììåòðè÷íîãî ñîöèàëüíîãî âçàèìîäåéñòâèÿ, ïîäîáíàÿ äåìîíñòðàöèÿ âíèìàíèÿ, ïîêà åùå íå ïðèæèâøàÿñÿ íà ðîññèéñêîé ïî÷âå, êàê ïðàâèëî, ïðî÷èòûâàåòñÿ îäíîçíà÷íî êàê íåèñêðåííÿÿ è íåðåäêî ðàñöåíèâàåòñÿ êàê æåëàíèå âûñëóæèòüñÿ.  ñôåðå íåôîðìàëüíîãî îáùåíèÿ â ñâÿçè ñ îòñóòñòâèåì óñòàíîâêè íà ýìîòèâíîñòü äîïóñêàåòñÿ óñèëåíèå âûñêàçûâàíèé, ñîäåðæàùèõ êàê ïîëîæèòåëüíûå, òàê è îòðèöàòåëüíûå ýìîöèè íà îáùåì ôîíå áîëüøåé ýìîöèîíàëüíîé ñäåðæàííîñòè, ïîñêîëüêó öåíèòñÿ ïðåæäå âñåãî èõ èñêðåííîñòü. Ðàññìîòðåííûå òàêòèêè îáîáù¸ííî ìîæíî ïðåäñòàâèòü ñëåäóþùèì îáðàçîì. Ñòðàòåãèÿ êîììóíèêàòèâíîé ïîääåðæêè ñîáåñåäíèêà Ñòðàòåãèÿ ïîääåðæêè ñîáåñåäíèêà (overstatement) Òàêòèêà óñèëåíèÿ çíà÷èìîñòè Òåõíèêà èíòåíñèôèêàöèè Òåõíèêà «ðàçâåðíóòîé» îöåíêè è ïîâòîðà Òàêòèêà ïîä÷åðêíóòîãî ïðåóâåëè÷åíèÿ Òåõíèêà ãèïåðáîëèçàöèè çíà÷èìîñòè Òåõíèêà äâîéíîãî ïðåóâåëè÷åíèÿ Ñòðàòåãèè ïîääåðæêè ñîáåñåäíèêà 23 Âîïðîñû è çàäàíèÿ äëÿ ñàìîêîíòðîëÿ 1. Make the following sentences more polite (indirect). State the functions. Functions Statement Overstatement Excuse me for disturbing you late. I know no one here I could turn for advice. Oh, come on in. I haven’t seen you of late. Are you tired? Could you spare me some time? I’ll be brief, my story won’t take long. What do you think about this sad and rather delicate matter? Thank you for your piece of advice. You are understanding I like the way you treat people. How sad! I am sorry. You’re kind! Thank you. Sorry to have taken your time. 2. Render from Russian into English. Different polite variants could be possible. 1. Ñ Íîâûì ãîäîì! – Ñïàñèáî. Âàñ òàêæå. 2. Âû õîðîøî âûãëÿäèòå. Âàì èäåò ýòî âå÷åðíåå ïëàòüå. 3. Ýòî âàì. – ×òî ýòî? Áðîøü? 4. Ñïàñèáî. ß ëþáëþ ÿíòàðü. 5. ×òî æå ìû ñòîèì? (Ïðîõîäèòå). Êàê çäîðîâüå âàøåé ìàòóøêè? – Ñïàñèáî, õîðîøî. 6. Èçâèíèòå, íî îíà íå ñìîæåò ïðèéòè. 7. ×òî ñëó÷èëîñü? – Ó íàñ çàáîëåëà ñîáàêà è ìíå ïðèøëîñü âåñòè å¸ ê âåòåðèíàðó. 8. Æàëü. 9. ß íå õî÷ó âàñ áåñïîêîèòü âî âðåìÿ ïðàçäíè÷íîãî âå÷åðà, íî ìíå íàäî ïîçâîíèòü åé è óçíàòü, êàê äåëà. 10. Ñïàñèáî. 24 Ëåêöèÿ ¹ 7 Ëåêöèÿ 7. Ñòðàòåãèè ïîääåðæàíèÿ êîíòàêòà Èñêóññòâî ïîääåðæàòü ðàçãîâîð (îñîáåííî ñ ìàëîçíàêîìûìè ëþäüìè) îñíîâàíî íà çíàíèè îïðåäåë¸ííûõ «ïðàâèë èãðû», ïîçâîëÿþùèõ ïîñòîÿííî íàïðàâëÿòü íèòü áåñåäû â íóæíîå ðóñëî, íå âûõîäÿ ïðè ýòîì çà ãðàíü âåæëèâîñòè. Äëÿ áðèòàíöåâ è àìåðèêàíöåâ õàðàêòåðíî ÷¸òêîå ðàçãðàíè÷åíèå ñôåð îáùåíèÿ è âåñüìà ñòðîãîå çàêðåïëåíèå òåìàòèêè çà îïðåäåë¸ííûìè êîììóíèêàòèâíûìè ñèòóàöèÿìè; îòñþäà òàêæå è äåëåíèå (ïî ñòåïåíè ñåðü¸çíîñòè îáñóæäåíèÿ) íà small talk è big talk. Íåäîïóñòèìûìè ïðèçíàþòñÿ ñìåøåíèå ïîâñåäíåâíî-áûòîâîãî, ïðîôåññèîíàëüíî-íàó÷íîãî, äåëîâîãî îáùåíèÿ è âûõîä çà ðàìêè õàðàêòåðíîé äëÿ êîíêðåòíîé ñôåðû òåìàòèêè. Íå ïðèíÿòî îáñóæäàòü íà ðàáîòå (äàæå ïî òåëåôîíó) äîìàøíèå ïðîáëåìû, à äîìà – ðàáî÷èå (àâòîðó íå ðàç äîâîäèëîñü ñëûøàòü, êàê, íàïðèìåð, áðèòàíöû, âûíóæäåííûå ïîñòóïàòü ïîäîáíûì îáðàçîì, ìíîãîêðàòíî èçâèíÿþòñÿ). Ïðèíöèï íåâìåøàòåëüñòâà, ëåæàùèé â îñíîâå êîììóíèêàòèâíîãî âçàèìîäåéñòâèÿ, ÿâëÿåòñÿ îïðåäåëÿþùèì ôàêòîðîì ïðè âûáîðå òåìàòèêè îáùåíèÿ. Íå äîïóñêàÿ ñàìîâîëüíîãî âòîðæåíèÿ «÷óæèõ» â ñâî¸ ïðîñòðàíñòâî, áðèòàíöû è àìåðèêàíöû, îäíàêî, îõîòíî èñïîëüçóþò åãî äëÿ óñòàíîâëåíèÿ êîíòàêòîâ ñ íåçíàêîìöàìè, âûñòóïàÿ â êà÷åñòâå «ãèäîâ» ïî ýòîé «òåððèòîðèè», ÷òî, ïðîåöèðóÿñü íà îáùåíèå, ñëóæèò íåèññÿêàåìûì èñòî÷íèêîì áåçîïàñíûõ òåì äëÿ îáñóæäåíèÿ. Òàê, äëÿ áðèòàíöåâ, íàïðèìåð, õàðàêòåðíî ïîêàçûâàòü ãîñòÿì ñâîé ñàä èëè äîì, à ïðåäìåòîì îñîáîé ãîðäîñòè õîçÿåâ-àìåðèêàíöåâ ÿâëÿþòñÿ ïðîñòîðíûå êîìíàòû; àíàëîãè÷íóþ ðîëü äëÿ ðîññèÿí íåðåäêî èãðàþò ðàçãîâîðû îá óñïåõàõ äåòåé.  õîäå ë¸ãêîé ñâåòñêîé áåñåäû – â íåôîðìàëüíîé îáñòàíîâêå â ãîñòÿõ èëè âî âðåìÿ îôèöèàëüíîãî ìåðîïðèÿòèÿ – ïðèíÿòî (îñîáåííî ñðåäè áðèòàíöåâ) â ðàâíîé ìåðå èçáåãàòü ðàçãîâîðîâ êàê î ÷¸ì-òî ñåðüåçíîì, òàê è î ëè÷íîì, ïðèäåðæèâàÿñü ðàñïðîñòðàíåííûõ øàáëîíîâ. Ïîñêîëüêó àêöåíò äåëàåòñÿ íà ôàòè÷åñêîì îáùåíèè, íåóäèâèòåëüíî, ÷òî íàèáîëåå íåéòðàëüíûì è áåçîïàñíûì ïðåäìåòîì îáñóæäåíèÿ (îñîáåííî äëÿ íåçíàêîìûõ èëè ìàëî çíàþùèõ äðóã äðóãà ëþäåé) â òàêèõ ñèòóàöèÿõ ïðåäñòàâëÿåòñÿ ïîãîäà. Ïðèìå÷àòåëüíî, ÷òî äëÿ áîëåå äåëîâûõ àìåðèêàíöåâ âîïðîñ “What do you do?” (for a living) ïðè âñòðå÷å ñ íåçíàêîìûìè ëþäüìè, íàïðèìåð, âî âðåìÿ ïðè¸ìà, ÿâëÿåòñÿ âïîëíå ïðèåìëåìûì è âåñüìà ðàñïðîñòðàí¸ííûì, òîãäà êàê áðèòàíöû ñòàðàþòñÿ âñÿ÷åñ- Ñòðàòåãèè ïîääåðæàíèÿ êîíòàêòà 25 êè èçáåãàòü ðàññïðîñîâ î ðîäå ïðîôåññèîíàëüíîé äåÿòåëüíîñòè ñâîèõ ñîáåñåäíèêîâ. Îäíàêî ñåðü¸çíûé ðàçãîâîð î ïðîôåññèîíàëüíûõ èíòåðåñàõ îäíîãî èç ñîáåñåäíèêîâ (to talk shop) â áîëüøîé êîìïàíèè íå ïðèâåòñòâóåòñÿ, – îòñóòñòâèå îáùåé êîììóíèêàöèîííîé áàçû ãðîçèò íàðóøåíèåì ïðèíöèïà ðàâåíñòâà. Îáùåïðèçíàííûìè òàáó ÿâëÿþòñÿ ðàññïðîñû î ôèíàíñîâîì ïîëîæåíèè è ñåêñå (âî èçáåæàíèå èçëèøíåé îòêðûòîñòè); çàïðåò äàëåå ðàñïðîñòðàíÿåòñÿ íà ðàçãîâîðû î áîëåçíÿõ è ñìåðòÿõ, à òàêæå íà ðåëèãèîçíóþ è ïîëèòè÷åñêóþ òåìàòèêó (ââèäó îïàñíîñòè íàðóøåíèÿ áåñêîíôëèêòíîé àòìîñôåðû îáùåíèÿ). Àíãëîÿçû÷íàÿ áåñåäà, òàêèì îáðàçîì, èìååò ÷¸òêî îáîçíà÷åííóþ ôîðìàëüíóþ ñòîðîíó. Äîìèíàíòîé ïðè ýòîì ÿâëÿåòñÿ îðèåíòàöèÿ íà áåçóïðå÷íîñòü ôîðìû, è â îñíîâå ïðàâèë êîììóíèêàòèâíîãî ïîâåäåíèÿ ëåæèò ïðèñòàëüíîå âíèìàíèå ê ñîáëþäåíèþ òðàäèöèîííî óñòàíîâëåííîãî ðåãëàìåíòà ñàìîãî ïðîöåññà îáùåíèÿ, èìåþùåãî îïðåäåë¸ííóþ ïîñëåäîâàòåëüíîñòü è ïðîäîëæèòåëüíîñòü ýòàïîâ, è íåïîñðåäñòâåííîãî ó÷àñòèÿ, âûñòðàèâàþùåãîñÿ ïî ïðèíöèïó ðàâåíñòâà – â îòíîøåíèè ÷åðåäîâàíèÿ ðåïëèê è ñòåïåíè àêòèâíîñòè. Õàðàêòåð âçàèìîäåéñòâèÿ ó÷àñòíèêîâ â òðàäèöèÿõ «äåìîêðàòè÷íûõ» àíãëîÿçû÷íûõ êóëüòóð èìååò æ¸ñòêî ðåãëàìåíòèðîâàííûå ïðàâèëà, îïðåäåëÿþùèå àêòèâíîñòü ó÷àñòèÿ â ðàçãîâîðå, ÷àñòîòó âêëþ÷åíèÿ â íåãî, î÷åð¸äíîñòü è ïðîäîëæèòåëüíîñòü ó÷àñòèÿ. Òàê, ðåïëèêè âñåõ ñîáåñåäíèêîâ äîëæíû áûòü ñîðàçìåðíûìè è îòíîñèòåëüíî êîðîòêèìè (äàæå åñëè ãîâîðÿùèé íå óñïåë äî êîíöà âûñêàçàòüñÿ è, çàäóìàâøèñü, îñòàíîâèëñÿ, «ýñòàôåòà» ïåðåõîäèò ê äðóãîìó, è íåîáõîäèìî æäàòü ñâîåé î÷åðåäè); ãîâîðèòü îäíîâðåìåííî, ïåðåáèâàòü èëè ïðåðûâàòü íå ïðèíÿòî, î «ïåðåäà÷å ýñòàôåòû» ñâèäåòåëüñòâóþò ïàóçû, êîòîðûå íåïðåìåííî íàäî çàïîëíÿòü, ïîñòîÿííî îêàçûâàÿ êîììóíèêàòèâíóþ ïîääåðæêó äðóã äðóãó ïðè ïîìîùè ðàçëè÷íûõ «âåðáàëüíûõ êîñòûëåé» – ôîðìàëüíûõ «çíàêîâ âíèìàíèÿ» (attention signals)1, êîòîðûå ðàñïðîñòðàíÿþòñÿ äàæå íà ïðèãëàøåíèÿ (íåðåäêî ïðåâðàùàþùèåñÿ â äåñåìàíòèçèðîâàííûå ôîðìóëû – phony invitations) è êîìïëèìåíòû. Äëÿ àìåðèêàíöåâ è – â áîëüøåé ñòåïåíè – äëÿ áðèòàíöåâ (ñîõðàíÿþùèõ òðàäèöèè ôîðìàëüíîãî îáùåíèÿ) âñòóïëåíèå â ðàçãîâîð â ñåðåäèíå ôðàçû äàæå ñ öåëüþ ïîìî÷ü å¸ ñôîðìóëèðîâàòü, âûðàçèòü îäîáðåíèå èëè ïðîäîëæèòü ìûñëü ðàñöåíèâàþòñÿ êàê ïðîÿâëåíèå äóðíîãî òîíà, äëèòåëüíûå «îòêðîâåíèÿ» – â ñèëó ïîâåðõíîñòíîãî îòíîøåíèÿ ê ñîöèàëüíûì êîíòàêòàì – ñ÷èòàþòñÿ íåóìåñòíûìè è âûçûâàþò íåäîóìåííóþ èëè çàùèòíóþ ðåàêöèþ, 26 Ëåêöèÿ ¹ 7 ïîñêîëüêó, êàê è â ñëó÷àå íåïðîøåíûõ ñîâåòîâ, âîñïðèíèìàþòñÿ êàê ïîïûòêè ñîêðàòèòü äèñòàíöèþ. Ñîñðåäîòî÷åííîñòü íà êàêîìòî îäíîì ïðåäìåòå, êàê ïðàâèëî, íå ïðåäïîëàãàåò âîçìîæíîñòè îòâëåêàòü âíèìàíèå ñîáåñåäíèêà, òàê êàê ëþáûå êîíòàêòû èìåþò ðåãëàìåíòèðîâàííûå âðåìåííûå ðàìêè (îòñþäà èçáèðàòåëüíûå è êðàòêîñðî÷íûå ìåæëè÷íîñòíûå îòíîøåíèÿ). Ìîë÷àíèå, íà êîòîðîå ëþáîé èìååò çàêîííîå ïðàâî â îáùåñòâåííûõ ìåñòàõ (íàïðèìåð, â òðàíñïîðòå èëè â î÷åðåäè) èëè â áîëüøîé êîìïàíèè, ãäå ïîääåðæàíèå îáùåãî ðàçãîâîðà íå ÿâëÿåòñÿ íåïðåìåííûì óñëîâèåì, íåäîïóñòèìî â ïðîöåññå small talk è âûçûâàåò ÷óâñòâî íåëîâêîñòè (ïîñêîëüêó êàæäûé ó÷àñòíèê ïðè ðàçãîâîðå tête-a-tête â ðàâíîé ìåðå íåñ¸ò îòâåòñòâåííîñòü çà íåïðåðûâíîñòü è ãëàäêîå òå÷åíèå áåñåäû). Åñëè ñêàçàòü íå÷åãî, íåîáõîäèìî ëèáî ñìåíèòü òåìó, ëèáî ïîäûñêàòü ïðåäëîã, ìîòèâèðóþùèé íåîáõîäèìîñòü ïðåêðàùåíèÿ êîíòàêòà, ëèáî ïîñëå 3–5-ìèíóòíîé áåñåäû íàéòè ñâîåìó ñîáåñåäíèêó äðóãîãî ïàðòí¸ðà ïî îáùåíèþ. Ýòî îñîáåííî õàðàêòåðíî äëÿ îáùåíèÿ áðèòàíöåâ, ïîñêîëüêó ñðåäè àìåðèêàíöåâ small talk ðàñïðîñòðàí¸í â ãîðàçäî ìåíüøåé ñòåïåíè è òðàäèöèè åãî âåäåíèÿ íå ñòîëü ñòðîãî ñîáëþäàþòñÿ. Èòàê, îñíîâíîå òðåáîâàíèå àíãëîÿçû÷íîé áåñåäû îòíîñèòåëüíî íåïðåðûâíîñòè êîììóíèêàòèâíîãî êîíòàêòà (keep-theconversation-going) ïðåäïîëàãàåò èñïîëüçîâàíèå ðåïëèê òàêèì îáðàçîì, ÷òîáû çà íèìè íåïðåìåííî ïîñëåäîâàëî ïðîäîëæåíèå ðàçãîâîðà. (Ðàçóìååòñÿ, ñþäà â ìåíüøåé ñòåïåíè îòíîñÿòñÿ ñïåöèôè÷åñêè äåëîâûå èëè íàó÷íûå äèñêóññèè èëè îáùåíèå ìåæäó õîðîøî äðóã äðóãà çíàþùèìè ëþäüìè; ýòî ïðåæäå âñåãî ïðàâèëà ôàòè÷åñêîãî îáùåíèÿ.) Ñòðàòåãèÿ ïîääåðæàíèÿ êîììóíèêàòèâíîãî êîíòàêòà ïðåäïîëàãàåò âçàèìíóþ îòâåòñòâåííîñòü ïàðòí¸ðîâ çà ñîçäàíèå êîìôîðòíîé àòìîñôåðû îáùåíèÿ è ãëàäêîå òå÷åíèå áåñåäû íà îñíîâå àäåêâàòíîãî ðåàãèðîâàíèÿ, ÷òî äîñòèãàåòñÿ ïðè ïîìîùè òàêòèêè ïîñòðîåíèÿ îòâåòíûõ ðåïëèê è òàêòèêè çàïîëíåíèÿ ïàóç. (Òàáë. 1) Òàáëèöà 1 Òàêòèêà ðàçâ¸ðòûâàíèÿ îäíîñëîæíûõ îòâåòíûõ ðåïëèê Answering Techniques Expanding Devices emphasising formulae softening: a) verbs of thinking b) phrases of reservation Functions e.g.:accepting,(dis)agreeing, explaining, apologetic refusal, (negative) opinion Ñòðàòåãèè ïîääåðæàíèÿ êîíòàêòà 27 Òàêòèêà ïîñòðîåíèÿ îòâåòíûõ ðåïëèê â îñíîâíîì ñâîäèòñÿ ê èñïîëüçîâàíèþ ðÿäà ðå÷åâûõ ôîðìóë è ïðè¸ìîâ, ïîìîãàþùèõ ðàçíîîáðàçèòü êðàòêèå îòâåòû äà / íåò, êîòîðûå â òðàäèöèÿõ àíãëîàìåðèêàíñêîé êîììóíèêàòèâíîé êóëüòóðû ñ÷èòàþòñÿ íå ñàìûìè âåæëèâûìè, ÷òî ïîçâîëÿåò ó÷àñòíèêàì ðàçãîâîðà ïðîäåìîíñòðèðîâàòü óâàæåíèå ê ñîáåñåäíèêó, ñâîé èíòåðåñ ê ïðåäìåòó îáùåíèÿ, à òàêæå âûèãðàòü âðåìÿ äëÿ îáäóìûâàíèÿ ïîñëåäóþùèõ ðåïëèê. (Òàáë. 2) Ñïîñîáàìè âàðüèðîâàíèÿ è «ðàñïðîñòðàíåíèÿ» îäíîñëîæíûõ îòâåòîâ (ò.å. ïðåâðàùåíèÿ èõ â äîñòàòî÷íî ðàçâ¸ðíóòûå âûñêàçûâàíèÿ) ÿâëÿþòñÿ â îñíîâíîì óñèëåíèå – äëÿ ïîä÷¸ðêíóòîãî âûðàæåíèÿ ñîãëàñèÿ è ñìÿã÷åíèå – äëÿ âåæëèâîãî îòêàçà; â ýòèõ öåëÿõ îáû÷íî èñïîëüçóþòñÿ: 1) èíòåíñèôèêàòîðû (íàðå÷èÿ êàê óñèëèòåëè); 2) ïðåäëîæåíèÿ ñ ìîäàëüíûìè ìîäèôèêàòîðàìè (ïðåèìóùåñòâåííî ñ ãëàãîëàìè ìûøëåíèÿ); 3) îãîâîðêè è äîïóùåíèÿ (phrases of reservation). Íàðå÷èÿ very, certainly, definitely, alright è äð. óïîòðåáëÿþòñÿ â çíà÷åíèè “êîíå÷íî”, “ðàçóìååòñÿ” êàê ñðåäñòâà óñèëåíèÿ, êîãäà òðåáóåòñÿ ïîä÷åðêíóòü âûðàæåíèå ñîãëàñèÿ èëè ïîäòâåðäèòü ãîòîâíîñòü îòêëèêíóòüñÿ íà ïðîñüáó. Ñð.: He’s our most talented teacher. – Yes, he certainly is. I don’t suppose this is the best plan. – No, definitely not. Could you help me with this project? – Yes, alright. Ïðåäëîæåíèÿ ñ ìàðêåðàìè ñóáúåêòèâíîé ìîäàëüíîñòè (ñ ãëàãîëàìè ìûøëåíèÿ – believe, think, suppose, hope, expect) ìîãóò ñëóæèòü Òàáëèöà 2 Òåõíèêè âûðàæåíèÿ ñîãëàñèÿ è îòêàçà Expanding Through Emphasising and Softening Functions Indirect Direct agreeing It’s all very amusing, isn’t it? – Yes, very. / It certainly is. Yes. accepting Will you join us at the party? – Yes, most willingly. (Thank you.) Yes. opinion Do you think it’s going to rain? – (No,) I don’t believe so./ I hope not.. No. refusing Are you going to the meeting? – (No,) I’m afraid, not. I’m likely to be busy. No. apologising So you’re going to be late again? – Yes, I’m afraid so = I’m sorry, but... Yes. disagreeing Do you agree with our proposal? – Yes, up to a point, but (you see)... No. 28 Ëåêöèÿ ¹ 7 äëÿ âûðàæåíèÿ êàê ïîëîæèòåëüíîãî, òàê è îòðèöàòåëüíîãî ìíåíèÿ. Ñð.: He is an opera singer, isn’t he? – (Yes,) I suppose so. Are we going to see him again? – (No,) I don’t expect so. Ðàçëè÷íîãî ðîäà îãîâîðêè è äîïóùåíèÿ òèïà in most cases, in principle, to a certain extent èëè æå ôîðìóëû I agree but.../ only / except; I’m sorry but.../ I’m afraid but... íåçàìåíèìûå â ñëó÷àå âåæëèâîãî îòêàçà, èçâèíåíèÿ, íåñîâïàäåíèÿ ìíåíèé, îáúÿñíåíèé, æàëîá è ò.ï., óïîòðåáëÿþòñÿ è äëÿ ñìÿã÷åíèÿ îäíîñëîæíûõ è êàòåãîðè÷íûõ íåò è äà. Ñð.: Do you like the idea of spending the night in the hotel? In a way, yes, but, you see ... (= No); So he failed the last exam,? – Yes, I’m afraid so. So, you didn’t know about it, did you? – No, I’m afraid I didn’t. Çäåñü ñëåäóåò îòìåòèòü, ÷òî äëÿ ðîññèÿí èñòî÷íèêîì èíòåðôåðåíöèè íåðåäêî ñëóæèò óòâåðäèòåëüíûé îòâåò íà ðåïëèêó â îòðèöàòåëüíîé ôîðìå, êîòîðûé äîëæåí íà÷èíàòüñÿ ñ No, òàê êàê ôðàçà Yes, I didn’t ãðàììàòè÷åñêè íåêîððåêòíà, òîãäà êàê äëÿ ðóññêîãî ÿçûêà âïîëíå åñòåñòâåííî ñîåäèíèòü äà è íåò â îäíîì ïðåäëîæåíèè: äà, ÿ íå çíàë, ÷òî ñîîòâåòñòâóåò àíãëèéñêîìó Yes, (but) I did know. Îñîáîãî âíèìàíèÿ çàñëóæèâàþò îòâåòû íà âîïðîñû ñ êîíå÷íûìè ôîðìàòèâàìè (tag questions), ãäå íåïðåìåííûì óñëîâèåì, à òî÷íåå ïðàâèëîì ïðèëè÷èÿ, óêàçûâàþùèì ê òîìó æå íà äîáðîæåëàòåëüíîå îòíîøåíèå ê ñîáåñåäíèêó, ÿâëÿåòñÿ ëþáîå äîïîëíåíèå ê äà/íåò – â ôîðìå íîâîé èíôîðìàöèè èëè æå ïðîñòî ïîâòîðåíèÿ ñàìîãî ôîðìàòèâà, ïîñêîëüêó îäíîñëîæíîå íåò ðàñöåíèâàåòñÿ êàê ïðîÿâëåíèå àãðåññèâíîñòè, à äà ìîæåò íåîæèäàííî äëÿ âàñ ïîñòàâèòü ïðåæäåâðåìåííóþ òî÷êó â ðàçãîâîðå.  ðóññêîì ÿçûêå èìåþòñÿ ïðÿìûå àíàëîãè ïîäîáíûõ âàðèàíòîâ îòâåòîâ, îäíàêî íå ìåíåå ÷àñòîòíû è êðàòêèå äà/íåò, à îáäóìûâàíèå ïîñëåäóþùèõ ðåïëèê âïîëíå åñòåñòâåííî ïðîèñõîäèò âî âðåìÿ ïàóç, êîòîðûå íå ñìóùàþò ïðåäñòàâèòåëåé ðóññêîÿçû÷íîé êóëüòóðû. (Òàáë. 3) Òàáëèöà 3 reply questions: short, echo, tags Òàêòèêà çàïîëíåíèÿ ïàóç Attention Signals ‘Attention Signals’ exclamations and ‘silence fillers’, interjections ‘all purpose’ nouns Function e.g.: emphatic agreement, hesitation, surprise, concern, sympathy, praising Ñòðàòåãèè ïîääåðæàíèÿ êîíòàêòà 29 Òàáëèöà 4 Òåõíèêà èñïîëüçîâàíèÿ âîïðîñîâ êàê «çíàêîâ âíèìàíèÿ» Reply Questions Functions Polite Reactions s* attention “It was great.” – “Oh, yes?” – “I really enjoyed the play.” i interest “There was an excellent performance last night.” – “Oh, was there?” l emphatic agreement “It was a lovely party.” – “Yes, wasn’t it?’’ e pity So you’re getting a divorce, are you? How sad! n concern Oh, it was his funeral yesterday, was it? c surprise “...I opened the fridge and saw...a mouse!” – “A mouse?! In the fridge?” e * impolite reaction Ïîääåðæèâàÿ íåïðèíóæä¸ííóþ áåñåäó, ñëåäóåò âíèìàòåëüíî îòíîñèòüñÿ ê âîçìîæíîìó âîçíèêíîâåíèþ ïàóç, ïîñêîëüêó ïðîäîëæèòåëüíîå íåëîâêîå ìîë÷àíèå ìîæåò ñâåñòè íà íåò óñèëèÿ âñåãî ïðåäøåñòâóþùåãî ðàçãîâîðà. «Áîðîòüñÿ» ñ ïàóçàìè ìîæíî ñëåäóþùèìè ñïîñîáàìè: ïðåæäå âñåãî íå äîâîäèòü äî íèõ, ñòàðàÿñü îòðåàãèðîâàòü íà êàæäóþ ðåïëèêó ñîáåñåäíèêà ñîîòâåòñòâóþùèì ñèòóàöèè âîïðîñîì, âîñêëèöàíèåì èëè ïîäõîäÿùèì ïî ñìûñëó ìåæäîìåòèåì.  êîíòåêñòå áåñåäû ýòè ðå÷åâûå ñðåäñòâà ôóíêöèîíèðóþò êàê ñâîåãî ðîäà «çíàêè âíèìàíèÿ» (attention signals), ìàðêåðû âåæëèâîñòè, ïîêàçûâàþùèå ñîáåñåäíèêó, ÷òî ïîòîê åãî êðàñíîðå÷èÿ íå èçëèâàåòñÿ âïóñòóþ è «âòîðîé ãîâîðÿùèé» íå ïðîñòî âíèìàåò, à àêòèâíî ó÷àñòâóåò â ðàçãîâîðå (ïóñòü äàæå ëèøü ñî÷óâñòâåííî /çàèíòåðåñîâàííî/ èçóìëåííî êèâàÿ ãîëîâîé è ïîääàêèâàÿ, íî íåïðåìåííî ê ìåñòó). Îêàçàíèå òàêèõ «çíàêîâ âíèìàíèÿ» – åù¸ îäíî èç íåïðåëîæíûõ ïðàâèë âåæëèâîãî îáùåíèÿ: êîììóíèêàíòû äîëæíû íåóñûïíî ñëåäèòü çà õîäîì ðàçãîâîðà, âðåìÿ îò âðåìåíè (ñîáëþäàÿ ÷óâñòâî ìåðû) ïîä÷åðêíóòî âûðàæàÿ ñâî¸ îäîáðåíèå, ïîõâàëó, íå ñêóïÿñü íà êîìïëèìåíòû è – óëûáàÿñü (â ðàçóìíûõ ïðåäåëàõ). Òàêòèêà çàïîëíåíèÿ ïàóç ïðåäïîëàãàåò óìåíèå èñïîëüçîâàòü ðàçëè÷íûå ðå÷åâûå ñðåäñòâà â êà÷åñòâå «çíàêîâ âíèìàíèÿ», ê ðàññìîòðåíèþ êîòîðûõ ìû è ïåðåéä¸ì. (Òàáë. 4)  êà÷åñòâå «çíàêîâ âíèìàíèÿ» â îòâåòíûõ ðåïëèêàõ îáû÷íî èñïîëüçóþòñÿ êðàòêèå âîïðîñû òð¸õ òèïîâ: 1) ñîáñòâåííî êðàòêèå (short questions), 2) ðàçäåëèòåëüíûå (òî÷íåå, èõ ôèíàëüíàÿ 30 Ëåêöèÿ ¹ 7 ÷àñòü – êîíå÷íûå ôîðìàòèâû) è 3) âîïðîñû-«ýõî», ïîâòîðÿþùèå ðåïëèêó (echo questions). Î÷åâèäíî, ÷òî òàêèå âîïðîñû çàäàþòñÿ íå ñ öåëüþ ïîëó÷èòü íåîáõîäèìóþ èíôîðìàöèþ; èõ ïðàãìàòè÷åñêîå çíà÷åíèå çàêëþ÷àåòñÿ â òîì, ÷òîáû ïðîñòî ïðîäåìîíñòðèðîâàòü ñâî¸ ó÷àñòèå, ïðîÿâèòü çàèíòåðåñîâàííîñòü â îáùåíèè íà äàííóþ òåìó. Íàèáîëåå ðàñïðîñòðàí¸ííûìè êðàòêèìè âîïðîñàìè ÿâëÿþòñÿ: Oh, yes? And so? And (what happened) then? Really? Òàêèå âîïðîñû, ïîä÷¸ðêèâàÿ ïîëîæèòåëüíóþ ðåàêöèþ ñëóøàþùåãî, ñòèìóëèðóþò äàëüíåéøåå ïðîäîëæåíèå áåñåäû. Ñð.: Have you heard the latest news? – Oh, yes? – A student from our college is the winner at the international contest! – Really? – And, you know, the President himself... Ê âîïðîñàì ñ êîíå÷íûìè ôîðìàòèâàìè, êàê ïðàâèëî, îáðàùàþòñÿ, ÷òîáû âûðàçèòü èíòåðåñ, óäèâëåíèå, çàáîòó, ñî÷óâñòâèå è ïð., ïðè÷¸ì tags ìîãóò áûòü è ñ îòðèöàíèåì, è áåç íåãî. Ñð.: “He did poorly in the English exam.” – “Oh, did he?” – “Yes, he couldn’t answer a single question.” – “Couldn’t he? I’m sorry.” Ðàçíîâèäíîñòüþ âîïðîñîâ ýòîãî òèïà ÿâëÿþòñÿ “same-way” tags, êîòîðûå óïîòðåáëÿþòñÿ òîëüêî â óòâåðäèòåëüíîé ôîðìå è ñëóæàò äëÿ âûðàæåíèÿ òåõ æå ýìîöèé. Cð.: “So you think you’re clever, do you?” “You’ve hurt yourself, have you? Oh, dear!” Îòðèöàòåëüíûå tags â êà÷åñòâå ðåïëèê íà óòâåðäèòåëüíûå ïðåäëîæåíèÿ èñïîëüçóþòñÿ äëÿ ïîä÷¸ðêíóòîãî âûðàæåíèÿ ñîãëàñèÿ. Cð.: She looked rather tired those days’ – ‘ Yes, didn’t she?’ Âîïðîñû-«ýõî» (ïðîèçíîñèìûå îáû÷íî ñ âîñõîäÿùåé èíòîíàöèåé) ïîïðîñòó ïîâòîðÿþò ïðåäûäóùóþ ðåïëèêó èëè å¸ ÷àñòü è ÷àùå âñåãî èñïîëüçóþòñÿ äëÿ âûðàæåíèÿ óäèâëåíèÿ. Cð.: “Look, I’ve seen a ghost!” – “A ghost?! Where?” “We’ve got a test in listening comprehension this term.” – “A test in what?” Èíòåðåñíî, ÷òî ñðåäè ïðèâåä¸ííûõ â òàáëèöå ïðèìåðîâ, ïîæàëóé, òîëüêî negative tags (ê êîòîðûì îáû÷íî ïðèáåãàþò, ÷òîáû ÿð÷å ïîä÷åðêíóòü ñâî¸ ñîãëàñèå) ÿâëÿþòñÿ ñïåöèôè÷åñêè àíãëèéñêèì ÿâëåíèåì, íå èìåþùèì ïðÿìîãî àíàëîãà â ðóññêîì; ïðî÷èå æå ñðåäñòâà ôóíêöèîíèðóþò â îáîèõ ÿçûêàõ ñõîäíûì îáðàçîì (ñð. Ïðàâäà? Äà ÷òî âû ãîâîðèòå? Íåóæåëè? Íå ìîæåò áûòü! è õàðàêòåðíûé íàáîð ðå÷åâûõ ñðåäñòâ ïðè ïðîÿâëåíèè âíèìàíèÿ, óäèâëåíèÿ, çàáîòû è äð.). (Òàáë. 5) Ñòðàòåãèè ïîääåðæàíèÿ êîíòàêòà 31 Òàáëèöà 5 Òåõíèêà èñïîëüçîâàíèÿ çàïîëíèòåëåé ïàóç Exclamations, Interjections and Fillers Functions Polite Reactions praising/ attention / pity Oh, how very exciting!/(How) interesting!/How very sad! s interest/ surprise/ sympathy What a beautiful sight!/What a surprise!/What a pity! i delight/ concern/ disbelief (That’s)great!/(That’s)awful!/(That’s) impossible! l surprise/concern/ disbelief You can’t be serious!/It can’t be!/You must be very upset/ joking! e sympathy/ surprise Oh dear/my God! Oh no!/Gosh!/Wow! Phew!/Oh, come on! No! n hesitation /attention um/ er...; a—yyy/ the—eee/ to—ooo//yes/uh-huh /mhhmm c hesitation/attention Well, now, that is to say/ I see what you mean. Quite. Right. OK. e gaining time / explaining Well, you see...Oh, let me think for a moment. The point is... Çàïîëíèòü ïàóçû ìîæíî ïðè ïîìîùè ñàìûõ ðàçëè÷íûõ âîñêëèöàíèé, ìåæäîìåòèé, «äåæóðíûõ» ñëîâ è ïðîñòî çâóêîâ. Ðàññìîòðèì íàèáîëåå ðàñïðîñòðàí¸ííûå. Òèïè÷íûå âîñêëèöàíèÿ ñòðîÿòñÿ íà óïîòðåáëåíèè ìåñòîèìåíèé how, what, that è êîíñòðóêöèé ñ ìîäàëüíûìè ãëàãîëàìè, ïåðåäàþùèìè çíà÷åíèå âåðîÿòíîñòè. Îíè èñïîëüçóþòñÿ äëÿ ïåðåäà÷è øèðîêîãî ñïåêòðà ýìîöèîíàëüíûõ ðåàêöèé: ïîõâàëû, âîñòîðãà, ñîæàëåíèÿ, ñî÷óâñòâèÿ, óäèâëåíèÿ, çàáîòû, íåäîâåð÷èâîñòè è ïð. Ñð.: “He fell and broke his leg.” – “How very unfortunate/ unlucky!” “Ann got an award at the competitions, you know.” – “What a surprise! That’s incredible!” “... and on top of it, I’ve lost my key.” – “You must be very annoyed/ upset!” “... she got a heart attack last week.” – “Oh no! Surely not! I can’t believe it, she’s only thirty!” ×àñòî â òàêèõ ñëó÷àÿõ óïîòðåáëÿþòñÿ ìåæäîìåòèÿ òèïà Gosh! Wow! Phew! Oh! No! êîòîðûå ìîãóò â ñî÷åòàíèè ñ âûøåóêàçàííûìè ïðè¸ìàìè óñèëèâàòü æåëàåìûé ýôôåêò (áîëüøèíñòâî èç íèõ îäíàêî áîëåå õàðàêòåðíî äëÿ íåôîðìàëüíîãî îáùåíèÿ). Cð.: “Last time I saw a crocodile in his apartment.” – “A crocodile?! Oh, come on! You must be kidding!” 32 Ëåêöèÿ ¹ 7 Ðàçëè÷íîãî ðîäà ïðåàìáóëû, ââîäíûå ôðàçû – òàê íàçûâàåìûå «äåæóðíûå» âûðàæåíèÿ (fillers), à òàêæå ñóùåñòâèòåëüíûå òèïà thing, fact, reason, point (“all purpose” nouns) ÿâëÿþòñÿ â íåêîòîðîì ñìûñëå óíèâåðñàëüíûìè, ïîñêîëüêó èõ ôóíêöèè íå îãðàíè÷èâàþòñÿ ñìÿã÷åíèåì âûñêàçûâàíèÿ; èõ ìîæíî óïîòðåáëÿòü äëÿ óòî÷íåíèÿ, èñïðàâëåíèÿ, äèñòàíöèðîâàíèÿ è ïð., ðóêîâîäñòâóÿñü íåîáõîäèìîé ðàññòàíîâêîé àêöåíòîâ ñîîòâåòñòâåííî ïðåäëàãàåìîé ðå÷åâîé ñèòóàöèè. Òàê, ÷òîáû íå äîïóñòèòü ïàóçû, ïîêà íàäî ñîáðàòüñÿ ñ ìûñëÿìè, ãîâîðÿùèé îáû÷íî ìàñêèðóåò ñâîþ íåóâåðåííîñòü èëè ñîìíåíèå ïðèáåãàÿ ê «çàïîëíèòåëÿì ïàóç» òèïà well, now, I see/ know; you see / know; let me see/ think è ïð. (hesitation devices), à åñëè ïàóçà âñ¸-òàêè âîçíèêëà (íàïðèìåð, êîãäà ãîâîðÿùèé íå çíàåò, ÷òî èëè êàê ñêàçàòü, è íåîáõîäèìî ïîòÿíóòü âðåìÿ), å¸ íåðåäêî ëèáî ïðîñòî îçâó÷èâàþò (â áóêâàëüíîì ñìûñëå ñëîâà, èñïîëüçóÿ çâóêè òèïà um/ er...), ëèáî çàïîëíÿþò ïðè ïîìîùè fillers. Ñð.: Right. I see what you mean. Well, you know... that’s a very interesting question ... Oh, let me think for a moment... Now, you see, it’s rather complicated, that is to say, it... Äëÿ òàêèõ ñëó÷àåâ è ðóññêèé è àíãëèéñêèé ÿçûêè ðàñïîëàãàþò ñõîäíûìè ñðåäñòâàìè òèïà âèäèòå ëè; ïîíÿòíî; íó; âîò; êàê âàì ñêàçàòü, îò ÷àñòîãî óïîòðåáëåíèÿ èíîãäà èìåíóåìûìè «ñëîâàìèïàðàçèòàìè», îäíàêî â öåëîì íåîáõîäèìîñòü çàïîëíåíèÿ ïàóç êàê òàêòèêà äëÿ ðóññêîÿçû÷íîãî îáùåíèÿ íå õàðàêòåðíà. ×åëîâåê, âîñïèòàííûé â òðàäèöèÿõ ðóññêîé êîììóíèêàòèâíîé êóëüòóðû, íå óñìîòðèò íè÷åãî ïðåäîñóäèòåëüíîãî â íàðóøåíèè íåïðåðûâíîñòè áåñåäû: òèøèíà äëÿ ðîññèéñêîé àóäèòîðèè – ïðåæäå âñåãî ïðèçíàê âíèìàíèÿ è óâàæåíèÿ ê ãîâîðÿùåìó, òîãäà æå êàê ïðåäñòàâèòåëè àíãëîÿçû÷íîé êóëüòóðû, íàïðîòèâ, èñïûòûâàþò â òàêèõ ñëó÷àÿõ ÷óâñòâî íåëîâêîñòè è ñòàðàþòñÿ ëþáûìè ñïîñîáàìè èçáåãàòü ïàóç. Îñîáåííî íåëåãêî áûâàåò ðîññèÿíèíó, çàáûâøåìó îá ýòîì â õîäå äåëîâîé áåñåäû èëè èíòåðâüþ ïðè ïðè¸ìå íà ðàáîòó, êîãäà âàæíî íå òîëüêî óìåëî ðåàãèðîâàòü íà âîïðîñû, íî è ñàìîìó çàäàâàòü èõ, à òàêæå – åñëè òîãî ïîòðåáóåò ñèòóàöèÿ – íå ñìóùàÿñü ðàññêàçàòü î ñâîèõ äîñòîèíñòâàõ (ïîñëåäíåå çà÷àñòóþ ÿâëÿåòñÿ äëÿ ðîññèÿí òÿæ¸ëûì èñïûòàíèåì: íå â íàøèõ òðàäèöèÿõ ãîâîðèòü î ñâîèõ ñèëüíûõ ñòîðîíàõ, ïîñêîëüêó ýòî ïîõîæå íà áàõâàëüñòâî). Ðàññìîòðåííûå òàêòèêè îáîáù¸ííî ìîæíî ïðåäñòàâèòü ñëåäóþùèì îáðàçîì. Ñòðàòåãèè ïîääåðæàíèÿ êîíòàêòà 33 Ñòðàòåãèè ïîääåðæàíèÿ êîììóíèêàòèâíîãî êîíòàêòà Òàêòèêà ðàçâåðòûâàíèÿ îäíîñëîæíûõ îòâåòíûõ ðåïëèê Òåõíèêà óñèëåíèÿ ñîãëàñèÿ Òåõíèêà ñìÿã÷åíèÿ îòêàçà Òàêòèêà çàïîëíåíèÿ ïàóç Òåõíèêà âîïðîñîâ êàê “çíàêîâ âíèìàíèÿ” Òåõíèêà èñïîëüçîâàíèÿ çàïîëíèòåëåé ïàóç Çàäàíèå äëÿ ñàìîïðîâåðêè 1. Render from Russian into English answers to the questions; give explanations in case of refusals. Different polite variants could be possible. 1. Ìû ñîáèðàåìñÿ íà ïèêíèê. Âû ïîåäåòå ñ íàìè? – Äà. 2. À Äæåéí òîæå ïîçîâåì? – Íåò. 3. ß äóìàþ, êàæäûé èç íàñ äîëæåí, òàê ñêàçàòü, âíåñòè ñâîé âêëàä. – Äà. 4. ß ìîãó âçÿòü ÷òî-íèáóäü èç åäû, õîðîøî? – Äà. 5. Âû íå çíàåòå, ãäå ïðîäàþòñÿ îäíîðàçîâûå ÷àøêè è òàðåëêè? – Íåò. 6. Íèê ïðåäëàãàåò ïîåõàòü ê íåìó çà ãîðîä, âû íå ïðîòèâ? – Íåò. 7. Ìû íå ìîãëè áû ïîåõàòü òóäà íà âàøåé ìàøèíå? – Íåò. 8. Ìîæåò, ïîåäåì íà ïîåçäå? – Äà. 9. Îí æèâåò äàëåêî îò ñòàíöèè? – Íåò. 10. Äóìàþ, ìû íå çàáëóäèìñÿ. – Äà. 2. Using the prompts below write mini dialogues about a) good weather b) bad weather Structure 1) a tag question introducing the subject 2) comments containing comparisons 3) the tag repeated 4) expectations 5) expressing agreement / disagreement 6) the tag repeated Pattern Conversation Hot day it is today, isn’t it/ don’t you think? Yes, much hotter than last spring, isn’t it? Yes, it is, isn’t it? I hope it will last/ keep up, don’t you? It does make a nice change, doesn’t it? Yes, I suppose so. 34 Ëåêöèÿ ¹ 8 Ëåêöèÿ 8. Íåêîòîðûå îñîáåííîñòè òðàêòîâêè íà÷àëà è çàâåðøåíèÿ áåñåäû Ñòðàòåãèÿ ðåàãèðîâàíèÿ íàöåëåíà íà ðàçâèòèå íàâûêîâ âûáîðà îòâåòíûõ ðåïëèê àäåêâàòíî ðàçíîîáðàçíûì ðå÷åâûì ñèòóàöèÿì, à òàêæå íà ïðåäîòâðàùåíèå êîììóíèêàòèâíûõ ñáîåâ, âîçíèêàþùèõ â ðåçóëüòàòå íåñîâïàäåíèÿ êóëüòóðíûõ íîðì. Óñòðàíåíèå òèïè÷íûõ â ïîäîáíûõ ñëó÷àÿõ îøèáîê äîëæíî îñíîâûâàòüñÿ íà çíàíèè îñîáåííîñòåé ðåãëàìåíòàöèè ýòàïîâ àíãëîÿçû÷íîãî îáùåíèÿ. Ïðèâîäèìûå íèæå ïðèìåðû ïîçâîëÿþò ñêîíöåíòðèðîâàòü âíèìàíèå íà ðÿäå õàðàêòåðíûõ ñëó÷àåâ, âûçûâàþùèõ çàòðóäíåíèÿ ó ðîññèÿí. Âåäåíèå àíãëîÿçû÷íîé áåñåäû ïðåäóñìàòðèâàåò äîñòàòî÷íî ÷¸òêî î÷åð÷åííûå ôàçû è ðåãëàìåíòèðîâàííûå ïðàâèëà ó÷àñòèÿ, ÷òî ïðîñëåæèâàåòñÿ â ñòðóêòóðíîé îðãàíèçàöèè ïðàêòè÷åñêè ëþáîãî ðàçãîâîðà è îòðàæàåò õàðàêòåðíóþ äëÿ áðèòàíöåâ è àìåðèêàíöåâ ïðèâû÷êó ê ëèíåéíîìó ìûøëåíèþ. Çàðóáåæíûìè ó÷¸íûìè1 â ïðîöåññå îáùåíèÿ âûäåëÿåòñÿ 5 ýòàïîâ: íà÷àëüíûé, ââîäíûé, îñíîâíîé, «îáðàòíàÿ ñâÿçü», çàâåðøàþùèé: opening feedforward business feedback closing Êàê ïîêàçûâàåò ñõåìà, â ñòðóêòóðå ðàçãîâîðà îáíàðóæèâàåòñÿ îïðåäåë¸ííàÿ ñèììåòðèÿ åãî ñîñòàâëÿþùèõ. Íà÷àëüíûé ýòàï, öåëüþ êîòîðîãî ÿâëÿåòñÿ óñòàíîâëåíèå êîììóíèêàòèâíîãî êîíòàêòà, îáû÷íî âêëþ÷àåò îáðàùåíèå, ïðèâåòñòâèå (ïðè íåîáõîäèìîñòè – ïðåäñòàâëåíèå), âûðàæåíèå (ïîëîæèòåëüíîãî) îòíîøåíèÿ ïî ïîâîäó ïðåäñòîÿùåãî îáùåíèÿ è small talk. Àíàëîãè÷íûì îáðàçîì ôèíàëüíûé ýòàï, ñâèäåòåëüñòâóþùèé î çàâåðøåíèè êîììóíèêàòèâíîãî êîíòàêòà, ïðåäïîëàãàåò (â îáðàòíîì ïîðÿäêå) small talk, âûðàæåíèå (ïîëîæèòåëüíîé) îöåíêè ñîñòîÿâøåãîñÿ êîíòàêòà, áëàãîäàðíîñòè – çà óäåë¸ííîå âðåìÿ, îêàçàííûå çíàêè âíèìàíèÿ è ò.ï., (ïðè íåîáõîäèìîñòè – ïðèãëàøåíèå), ïîæåëàíèÿ è ñîáñòâåííî ïðîùàíèå. Íà âòîðîì ýòàïå, óñëîâíî íàçâàííîì íàìè «ââîäíûé» (â ñâÿçè ñ òðóäíîñòüþ àäåêâàòíîãî ïåðåâîäà íà ðóññêèé ÿçûê òåðìèíà feedforward), ñòàâèòñÿ öåëü «ïîäãîòîâèòü ïî÷âó» äëÿ äàëüíåéøåãî îáñóæäåíèÿ, ïðåäîñòàâèâ ñîáåñåäíèêó îïðåäåë¸ííóþ èíôîðìàöèþ, 1 Ñì. Ïîäðîáíåå: De Vito 1993: 13; 180; à òàêæå Knapp & Vangelisti, 1992; Krivinos & Knapp, 1975; Frentz 1976; Reardon 1987; Knapp, Hart, Friedrich & Shulman 1973. Íåêîòîðûå îñîáåííîñòè òðàêòîâêè íà÷àëà è çàâåðøåíèÿ áåñåäû 35 ïðåäâàðÿþùóþ ñîáñòâåííî «äåëîâóþ» ÷àñòü, îáëåã÷àþùóþ å¸ ïîñëåäóþùåå âîñïðèÿòèå è ïîçâîëÿþùóþ ÷àñòè÷íî âîéòè â êóðñ äåëà (Richards 1951). Ïîìèìî óñòàíîâëåíèÿ êîíòàêòà, ïî àíàëîãèè ñ ââåäåíèåì â íàó÷íîé ìîíîãðàôèè èëè ñî âñòóïèòåëüíîé ÷àñòüþ ïóáëè÷íîãî âûñòóïëåíèÿ, çàäà÷è ýòîé ñòàäèè ðàçãîâîðà âêëþ÷àþò ñâîåîáðàçíûé îáçîð îñíîâíîé òåìû, îáîñíîâàíèå âîçìîæíîñòè/ óìåñòíîñòè îáðàùåíèÿ ê íåé, íåîáõîäèìûå «îãîâîðêè», êàñàþùèåñÿ êàê ôîðìû, òàê è ñîäåðæàíèÿ. ×åòâåðòûé ýòàï – óñòàíîâëåíèå «îáðàòíîé ñâÿçè» – ÿâëÿåòñÿ ñâîåãî ðîäà çåðêàëüíûì îòðàæåíèåì âòîðîãî: feedback ïðåäïîëàãàåò ïîñðåäñòâîì âîïðîñîâ (êàê ïðàâèëî, îáîáùàþùåãî õàðàêòåðà) âûÿâëåíèå îòâåòíîé ðåàêöèè (à â ñëó÷àå íåäîïîíèìàíèÿ – âîçâðàùåíèå ê ïðåäûäóùåé ñòàäèè è óòî÷íåíèå), îöåíêè ðåçóëüòàòèâíîñòè áåñåäû; ýòîò ýòàï ñèãíàëèçèðóåò î äîñòèæåíèè íàìå÷åííîé öåëè è ïðè ïîìîùè ðåçþìèðóþùèõ ðåïëèê è ïîäâåäåíèÿ èòîãîâ ãîòîâèò ñîáåñåäíèêîâ ê ïëàâíîìó ïåðåõîäó ê çàêëþ÷èòåëüíîé ñòàäèè îáùåíèÿ. Îñíîâíîé ýòàï, íàçûâàåìûé big talk, èëè business2, ïðåäïîëàãàåò âîçìîæíîñòü ñôîêóñèðîâàòüñÿ íà ñóòè äåëà è äîëæåí îòëè÷àòüñÿ áîëüøåé ïðîäîëæèòåëüíîñòüþ, ÷òîáû òåì ñàìûì îïðàâäàòü íåîáõîäèìîñòü ïðåäøåñòâóþùèõ è ïîñëåäóþùèõ ýòàïîâ, êàæäàÿ «ñèììåòðè÷íàÿ» ïàðà êîòîðûõ äëèòñÿ ïðîïîðöèîíàëüíî îäèíàêîâî. Ðàçóìååòñÿ, íå âñÿêèé àíãëîÿçû÷íûé ðàçãîâîð êîíñòðóèðóåòñÿ â ñòðîãîì ñîîòâåòñòâèè ñ âûøåîïèñàííûìè ïðèíöèïàìè, îäíàêî âñå ñîñòàâëÿþùèå íåèçìåííî äîëæíû ïðèñóòñòâîâàòü: äîïóñòèìûì îòêëîíåíèåì ÿâëÿåòñÿ îáúåäèíåíèå äâóõ ïåðâûõ è äâóõ ïîñëåäíèõ ýòàïîâ, õàðàêòåðíîå äëÿ ñèòóàöèé íåôîðìàëüíîãî îáùåíèÿ (òèïà Hey, look what I’ve got here èëè Hi, folks, just listen to this), èëè æå âûçâàííîå «ïðîèçâîäñòâåííîé íåîáõîäèìîñòüþ» òðåáîâàíèå ñîêðàùåíèÿ ñðîêà îáùåíèÿ (òèïà Hello, everyone, let’s get the meeting going èëè Listen, I’ve got to think more about your offer, OK?)3. Âàæíî ïðè ýòîì îòìåòèòü, ÷òî ëþáîå ñóùåñòâåííîå èçìåíåíèå ýòèõ ÷¸òêî ñîîòíîñèìûõ ïî äëèòåëüíîñòè è òîíêî ñáàëàíñèðîâàííûõ ôàç íåìåäëåííî âîñïðèíèìàåòñÿ ó÷àñòíèêàìè àíãëîÿçû÷íîé êîììóíèêàöèè êàê «ñèãíàë òðåâîãè», òðåáóþùèé ïîâûøåííîãî âíèìàíèÿ, à îòñóòñòâèå âåðáàëèçîâàííîé ìîòèâàöèè ïðè ïîäîáíûõ íàðóøåíèÿõ ìîæåò ïîâëå÷ü çà ñîáîé íåãàòèâíóþ ðåàêöèþ. 2 Öåëåóñòðåìë¸ííûå àìåðèêàíöû ñ÷èòàþò ïîñëåäíèé èç òåðìèíîâ íàèáîëåå òî÷íûì, ïîñêîëüêó ëþáîé ðàçãîâîð èìååò îïðåäåëåííóþ óñòàíîâêó – èíôîðìàòèâíóþ, ïîáóäèòåëüíóþ, ýìîòèâíóþ è ïð., è äîñòàòî÷íî îáùèì, ÷òîáû îõâàòèòü ëþáûå âèäû îáùåíèÿ (De Vito 1993: 180). 3 Ñì. òæ.: De Vito1993: 181. 36 Ëåêöèÿ ¹ 8 Ðåïëèêè ðåàãèðîâàíèÿ ïðè óñòàíîâëåíèè è çàâåðøåíèè êîììóíèêàòèâíîãî êîíòàêòà Íà÷àëüíàÿ è çàâåðøàþùàÿ ôàçû îáùåíèÿ (opening ànd closing) ïðåäïîëàãàþò ïðåæäå âñåãî çíàíèå ôîðìóë ïðèâåòñòâèÿ è ïðîùàíèÿ è îòâåòíûõ ðåïëèê è óïîòðåáëåíèå èõ àäåêâàòíî ïðåäëàãàåìîé ðå÷åâîé ñèòóàöèè. Ðàññìîòðèì íåêîòîðûå èç íàèáîëåå ðàñïðîñòðàí¸ííûõ ôîðìóë, õàðàêòåðíûõ äëÿ àíãëîÿçû÷íîé áåñåäû. (Ñì. òàáë. 1) Ôîðìóëû ïðèâåòñòâèÿ è ïðîùàíèÿ, â îñíîâíîì ñîâïàäàþùèå â îáîèõ ÿçûêàõ, â ðÿäå êîììóíèêàòèâíûõ ñèòóàöèé îáíàðóæèâàþò ðàñõîæäåíèÿ (êàê â èõ èíòåðïðåòàöèè, òàê è â âûáîðå îòâåòíûõ ðåïëèê), íåçíàíèå êîòîðûõ ìîæåò ïîâëå÷ü çà ñîáîé íåäîðàçóìåíèÿ è íåæåëàòåëüíûå äëÿ ðàçãîâîðà ïîñëåäñòâèÿ. Òàê, ôîðìàëüíîå ïðèâåòñòâèå How do you do? èíîãäà îøèáî÷íî èñïîëüçóþò â êà÷åñòâå âîïðîñà «Êàê äåëà?» Ýòà ôîðìóëà âåæëèâîñòè, îäíàêî, óïîòðåáëÿåòñÿ òîëüêî âî âðåìÿ îôèöèàëüíîãî çíàêîìñòâà, ñîîòâåòñòâóåò ðóññêîìó «çäðàâñòâóéòå» è òðåáóåò ïîâòîðåíèÿ â îòâåòíîé ðåïëèêå. (Ïðè íåôîðìàëüíîì îáùåíèè îòâåòíàÿ ðåïëèêà òàêæå ìîæåò ïîâòîðÿòü ïðèâåòñòâåííóþ, íàïðèìåð hello – â ñîîòâåòñòâèè c çàäàííîé ñèòóàöèåé; äàëåå âîçìîæíû ôðàçû òèïà Glad/ Pleased to see/ meet you è ïð.). Ñàìó æå ïðîöåäóðó çíàêîìñòâà ìîæíî ïðåäâàðèòü íåéòðàëüíîé ôðàçîé òèïà Shall I make the introductions? èëè æå, åñëè âàñ ïî êàêîéëèáî ïðè÷èíå íå ïðåäñòàâèëè, ìîæíî ïðåäñòàâèòüñÿ ñàìîìó, ñêàçàâ, íàïðèìåð, òàê: I thought I’d introduce myself. My name is... Åñëè æå, ïðåäñòàâëÿÿ ëþäåé ðàçíîãî ïîëà íà îôèöèàëüíîé âñòðå÷å, âû ïî îøèáêå íà÷àëè ñ îáðàùåíèÿ ê ìóæ÷èíå, ýòèêåò ìîæíî ñîáëþñòè ñëåäóþùèì îáðàçîì: Mr. Jones, let me introduce you to Mrs. Kay. Òàáëèöà 1 Greeting / Parting Formulae Form of Address Answer Style Function How do you do? the same repeated formal greeting after introduction How are you? Fine, thank you. (And) how are you? neutral enquiry after sb’s health How’re things? Fine, thanks. What about you? informal greeting Good day! (All the best) formal parting (cold dismissal) Íåêîòîðûå îñîáåííîñòè òðàêòîâêè íà÷àëà è çàâåðøåíèÿ áåñåäû 37 Íàèáîëåå õðåñòîìàòèéíîé ÿâëÿåòñÿ èíòåðïðåòàöèÿ How are you? ïî àíàëîãèè ñ ðóññêèì «Êàê äåëà?» (â äàííîì ñëó÷àå ïðÿìûì àíàëîãîì ÿâëÿåòñÿ How’re things?; âîçìîæíû è ìåíåå ôîðìàëüíûå âàðèàíòû: How’s everything?/ How’s it going?). Èñïîëüçîâàíèå How are you? â çíà÷åíèè «Êàê äåëà?» â íåêîòîðîé ñòåïåíè õàðàêòåðíî äëÿ àìåðèêàíöåâ; â íàñòîÿùåå âðåìÿ ýòà ôîðìóëà ïðèâåòñòâèÿ, ðàíåå èñïîëüçîâàâøàÿñÿ, ÷òîáû ñïðàâèòüñÿ î ÷ü¸ìëèáî çäîðîâüå – áîëåå èëè ìåíåå ôîðìàëüíî, ïîñòåïåííî âñ¸ áîëåå äåñåìàíòèçèðóåòñÿ, è â îòâåòíîé ðåïëèêå ïîäðàçóìåâàåòñÿ ñîîòâåòñòâóþùåå êëèøå èç øàáëîííîãî íàáîðà òèïà: Fine, thank you / Not so well, thank you (îòâåòíóþ ðåïëèêó íåîáõîäèìî ðàññìàòðèâàòü êàê ñâîåãî ðîäà çàñòûâøóþ ôîðìó ñî ñòðîãî çàôèêñèðîâàííûì ïîðÿäêîì ñëîâ; îòâåò Thank you, fine áóäåò íåêîððåêòåí). Ïîäîáíàÿ òåíäåíöèÿ ê äåñåìàíòèçàöèè íàáëþäàåòñÿ è â ñëó÷àå àíãëèéñêîãî ïðèãëàøåíèÿ, êîòîðîå, â îòëè÷èå îò ðóññêîãî, ðåêîìåíäóåòñÿ âîñïðèíèìàòü â áóêâàëüíîì ñìûñëå, òîëüêî åñëè èìåþòñÿ êîíêðåòíûå óêàçàíèÿ îòíîñèòåëüíî âðåìåíè ïðåäïîëàãàåìûõ âèçèòîâ, âî ìíîãèõ èíûõ ñëó÷àÿõ ýòî íå áîëåå ÷åì ëþáåçíîñòü, íåðåäêî èñïîëüçóåìàÿ íà ýòàïå ïðîùàíèÿ è ôóíêöèîíàëüíî ïðèáëèæåííàÿ ê ïðî÷èì ðàñïðîñòðàíåííûì ôîðìóëàì âåæëèâîñòè. Ñëåäóåò òàêæå çíàòü, ÷òî àíãëîãîâîðÿùèå ñîáåñåäíèêè (îáîþäíî çàáîòÿùèåñÿ î ñîõðàíåíèè privacy), ÷àñòî îáëåêàþò ñâîè ïðèãëàøåíèÿ â âåñüìà äâóñìûñëåííóþ (ñ òî÷êè çðåíèÿ ðîññèÿí) ôîðìó, çàðàíåå ðàññ÷èòàííóþ íà ïîòåíöèàëüíûé îòêàç, òèïà: I’d like to invite you over this weekend, but I imagine you’re too busy, â ñâåòå ÷åãî ïðÿìûå ðóññêîÿçû÷íûå ïðèãëàøåíèÿ çâó÷àò äëÿ íèõ âåñüìà íàâÿç÷èâî. Ïðèâåòñòâîâàòü ìàëîçíàêîìûõ ëþäåé èëè ïðîùàòüñÿ ñ íèìè íàèáîëåå «áåçîïàñíî» ïðè ïîìîùè íåéòðàëüíûõ ôðàç, âàðüèðóåìûõ â çàâèñèìîñòè îò âðåìåíè ñóòîê. Ïðè ýòîì ñëåäóåò îòìåòèòü, ÷òî ôîðìóëà «äîáðûé äåíü» âñòðå÷àåòñÿ â êà÷åñòâå ïðèâåòñòâèÿ òîëüêî â àìåðèêàíñêîì âàðèàíòå; äëÿ áðèòàíöåâ æå – ýòî ñïîñîá âåæëèâî-õîëîäíî óêàçàòü ÷åëîâåêó íà äâåðü, äàâàÿ ïîíÿòü (íå âûêàçûâàÿ ÿâíîãî íåäîâîëüñòâà), ÷òî ðàçãîâîð îêîí÷åí. Ñëåäóåò òàêæå óïîìÿíóòü, ÷òî ôîðìóëà All the best, ýêâèâàëåíò «Âñåãî õîðîøåãî!» (íåéòðàëüíûé â ðóññêîì ÿçûêå) â àíãëèéñêîì ÿçûêå èìååò áîëåå îãðàíè÷åííóþ ñôåðó óïîòðåáëåíèÿ è èñïîëüçóåòñÿ ïðè ðàññòàâàíèè íà äîëãîå âðåìÿ (ñð. See you 38 Ëåêöèÿ ¹ 8 sometime soon, à òàêæå Take care è Cheerio (informal), íå èìåþùèå ïðÿìûõ ðóññêèõ àíàëîãîâ). (Ñì. òàáë. 2)  ñëó÷àÿõ ïðàçäíèêîâ ìîæíî âîñïîëüçîâàòüñÿ ñïåöèàëüíûìè ïîçäðàâëåíèÿìè ñ êîíêðåòíûì ñîáûòèåì (â êîòîðûõ îòñóòñòâóþò òðàäèöèîííî ðóññêèå ïîçäðàâëÿþ è æåëàþ). Ñëåäóåò îòìåòèòü, ÷òî ôóíêöèîíàëüíàÿ íàãðóçêà èõ àíãëèéñêèõ ýêâèâàëåíòîâ ñóùåñòâåííî èíàÿ. Òàê, íàïðèìåð, Congratulations! èñïîëüçóþò, ïîçäðàâëÿÿ ñ êàêîé-òî âàæíîé âåõîé èëè ñîáûòèåì â æèçíè ÷åëîâåêà: þáèëåé, ðîæäåíèå ðåá¸íêà, ñäà÷à ñëîæíîãî ýêçàìåíà è ò.ï., à ðàçëè÷íîãî ðîäà best wishes õàðàêòåðíû ïðè ïðîùàíèè, ãäå íàèáîëåå ðàñïðîñòðàí¸ííûå àíãëèéñêèå ôîðìóëû ýêâèâàëåíòíû ðóññêèì, çà èñêëþ÷åíèåì ðàçâå ÷òî Remember me to N/ Say hello to N for me è Enjoy yourself! èëè ïðîñòî Enjoy! â àìåðèêàíñêîì âàðèàíòå. Ñëåäóåò òàêæå îòìåòèòü, ÷òî âî âðåìÿ çàñòîëüÿ äëÿ áðèòàíöåâ íå õàðàêòåðíî ïðîèçíîñèòü òîñòû, îñîáåííî äëèííûå, – îáû÷íî ïðèíÿòî îãðàíè÷èâàòüñÿ êðàòêèìè ôîðìóëàìè òèïà (That’s) To you! To the host! Your health! Ïðè ýòîì îäíîé èç òèïè÷íûõ îøèáîê ðîññèÿí ÿâëÿåòñÿ äîñëîâíûé ïåðåâîä ñ ðóññêîãî «Äàâàéòå âûïüåì çà õîçÿèíà äîìà» – çàìåíà ïðåäëîãà to íà for (â äàííîì êîíòåêñòå èìåþùåãî çíà÷åíèå âìåñòî). Òàêèì îáðàçîì, ðóññêèé è àíãëèéñêèé ÿçûêè ïðè äîñòàòî÷íî áîëüøîé ñòåïåíè ñõîäñòâà â ñðåäñòâàõ âûðàæåíèÿ ïðèâåòñòâèÿ/ ïðîùàíèÿ ïðîÿâëÿþò âåñüìà ðàçëè÷íóþ èçáèðàòåëüíîñòü â îòíîøåíèè óïîòðåáëåíèÿ ñàìèõ ôîðìóë. Ðàññìîòðåíèå ââîäíîãî ýòàïà è «îáðàòíîé ñâÿçè» (feedforward and feedback) ïîçâîëÿåò îïðåäåëèòü íåêîòîðûå äàëüíåéøèå îñîáåííîñòè òðàêòîâêè íà÷àëà è çàâåðøåíèÿ àíãëîÿçû÷íîé áåñåäû. Òàê, ïîñëå îáðàùåíèÿ è ïðèâåòñòâèÿ (åñëè ýòî íå ìèìîëåòíûé êîíòàêò, êîòîðûé ñâîäèòñÿ ê îáìåíó ëþáåçíîñòÿìè è îãðàíè÷èâàåòñÿ êðàòêèì small talk), êàê ïðàâèëî, èìååò ìåñòî íåêàÿ ïðåàìáóëà (previewer), èñïîëüçóåìàÿ ñ öåëüþ ïîäãîòîâèòü ïàðòíåðà àäåêâàòíî âîñïðèíÿòü Òàáëèöà 2 Ñïåöèàëüíûå ñëó÷àè (Special Cases) Special Greeting s Sending Good Wishes Happy birthday/ Many happy returns (of the day)! Remember me to N /Say hello to N for me (AmE ) Happy New Year/Easter! Happy/ Merry Christmas! Give my best wishes/ regards/ greetings/ love to... Íåêîòîðûå îñîáåííîñòè òðàêòîâêè íà÷àëà è çàâåðøåíèÿ áåñåäû 39 Òàáëèöà 3 Previewing Future Messages Future Message “previewers” Examples form/style I’ll be very brief / It won’t take me longer than a minute content I’m afraid I have sad news for you importance Listen to this before you make a move positive/negative quality You’re not going to like this, but here’s what I heard ïðåäïîëàãàåìóþ èíôîðìàöèþ, – ñ òî÷êè çðåíèÿ ôîðìû, ñòèëÿ, ñîäåðæàíèÿ è åãî õàðàêòåðà. Îáîáùåííî ýòî ìîæíî ïðåäñòàâèòü ñëåäóþùèì îáðàçîì. (Ñì. òàáë. 3) Àíàëîãè÷íûå ïðåàìáóëû èñïîëüçóþòñÿ è ðîññèÿíàìè, îñîáåííî ïðè íåîáõîäèìîñòè ïîäãîòîâèòü ñîáåñåäíèêà ê âîñïðèÿòèþ íåîæèäàííûõ/âàæíûõ íîâîñòåé èëè ïå÷àëüíûõ èçâåñòèé, îäíàêî âî ìíîãèõ äðóãèõ ðå÷åâûõ ñèòóàöèÿõ ïðè íåôîðìàëüíîì îáùåíèè îíè ìîãóò ïðîñòî îïóñêàòüñÿ, ÷òî íåõàðàêòåðíî äëÿ àíãëîÿçû÷íîé áåñåäû. Ñ öåëüþ ñîõðàíèòü ëèöî áðèòàíöû è àìåðèêàíöû óäåëÿþò ïîâûøåííîå âíèìàíèå òîìó, ÷òîáû ïñèõîëîãè÷åñêè íàñòðîèòü ñîáåñåäíèêà íà âîñïðèÿòèå ñîäåðæàíèÿ íàìåðåíèÿ òàê, êàê ýòî íåîáõîäèìî ãîâîðÿùåìó, è òàêèì îáðàçîì îáåñïå÷èòü ãëàäêîå òå÷åíèå ðàçãîâîðà. Ïî ýòîé ïðè÷èíå, ïîìèìî ïðåàìáóë (íåîáõîäèìîñòü êîòîðûõ â ðÿäå ñèòóàöèé î÷åâèäíà è äëÿ ðîññèÿí), øèðîêî ðàñïðîñòðàíåíû âñåâîçìîæíûå îãîâîðêè, ÿâëÿþùèåñÿ íåïðåìåííûì êîìïîíåíòîì «ââîäêè» (feedforward). Ýòè «îãîâîðêè», èçâåñòíûå êàê disclaimers è èñïîëüçóåìûå äëÿ îáåñïå÷åíèÿ âçàèìîïîíèìàíèÿ, ìîãóò ñîäåðæàòü – â çàâèñèìîñòè îò õàðàêòåðà êîììóíèêàòèâíîé çàäà÷è – âûðàæåíèå îïàñåíèÿ, èçâèíåíèÿ, óâåðåíèÿ, îïðàâäàíèÿ è ïð., ÷òî ñõåìàòè÷íî ïðåäñòàâëåíî íèæå4. (Ñì. òàáë. 4) Çíàíèå îñîáåííîñòåé ââîäíîãî ýòàïà îáùåíèÿ ïðåäïîëàãàåò ðàçâèòèå óìåíèÿ èñïîëüçîâàòü âûøåïðèâåä¸ííûå îãîâîðêè â ñîîòâåòñòâèè ñ ðàçëè÷íûìè ðå÷åâûìè çàäà÷àìè. Òàê, ÷òîáû áîëåå ÷åòêî îáîçíà÷èòü «ñâîþ òåððèòîðèþ», àíãëîÿçû÷íûå êîììóíèêàíòû îáðàùàþòñÿ ê «îãðàíè÷èòåëÿì» (hedges), ïîçâîëÿþùèì îïðåäåëèòü ãðàíèöû ñîîáùàåìîãî è óêëîíèòüñÿ îò îòâåòñòâåííîñòè çà åãî îáúåêòèâíîñòü, íàïðèìåð: I didn’t read the entire essay, but 4 Ñîñòàâëåíî ïî ìàòåðèàëàì: (Hewitt & Stokes 1975) 40 Ëåêöèÿ ¹ 8 I may be wrong here, but òàê ÷òîáû ñëóøàþùèé ìîã âûðàçèòü ñâîå íåïðèÿòèå â îòíîøåíèè ôàêòîâ, à íå ñàìîãî ãîâîðÿùåãî è òåì ñàìûì ñîõðàíèòü ëèöî. Ïðè íåîáõîäèìîñòè îáñóæäàòü «îïàñíóþ» òåìàòèêó óäîáíî èñïîëüçîâàòü «ññûëêè íà àâòîðèòåòíûå èñòî÷íèêè» (“credentials”), ÷òîáû ëåã÷å îáîçíà÷èòü ñîáñòâåííóþ ïîçèöèþ, òèïà: Some of my best friends are I’m not xenophobic, but Àíàëîãè÷íóþ ôóíêöèþ âûïîëíÿþò è îïðàâäàíèÿ òð¸õ îñòàâøèõñÿ òèïîâ, êîãäà ãîâîðÿùèé, âûíóæäåííûé èäòè íà íàðóøåíèå êàêèõëèáî ïèñàíûõ èëè íåïèñàíûõ ïðàâèë (èëè óæå èõ íàðóøèâ), ïðîñèò îá «îòïóùåíèè ãðåõîâ» (“sin licenses”), ïðèâîäÿ ðàçëè÷íûå àðãóìåíòû ñ öåëüþ íå óðîíèòü ëèöî: I know you’ll think this suggestion is out of order, but do consider If you promise not to laugh, I’ll tell you exactly what happened Íåêîòîðûå îñîáåííîñòè çàâåðøàþùåãî ýòàïà îáùåíèÿ áûëè ðàññìîòðåíû íà ïðèìåðàõ âûðàæåíèÿ áëàãîäàðíîñòè, ÷àñòî ïðåäâàðÿþùèõ îêîí÷àíèå êîììóíèêàòèâíîãî êîíòàêòà. Íà ýòîì ýòàïå â êà÷åñòâå îäíîãî èç îáÿçàòåëüíûõ êîìïîíåíòîâ óñòàíîâëåíèÿ «îáðàòíîé ñâÿçè» (feedback) – îöåíêè ñîñòîÿâøåãîñÿ ðàçãîâîðà/ ñîâìåñòíî ïðîâåä¸ííîãî âðåìåíè àíãëîÿçû÷íûé êîììóíèêàíò, êàê ïðàâèëî, ñòðåìèòñÿ âñÿ÷åñêè ðàñïîëîæèòü ê ñåáå ñîáåñåäíèêà, íåèçìåííî îáðàùàÿñü ê ñòðàòåãèè ïðåóâåëè÷åíèÿ (ñì. ëåêöèþ 6). Çàñëóæèâàþò òàêæå âíèìàíèÿ ðàñõîæäåíèÿ â ôóíêöèîíèðîâàíèè íàèáîëåå ðàñïðîñòðàí¸ííûõ ôîðìóë, ðàññìîòðåíèå êîòîðûõ ìû çäåñü îãðàíè÷èì ïðèìåðàìè ðàçëè÷íîé òðàêòîâêè: «ïîæàëóéñòà», «ñïàñèáî» è «êîíå÷íî», à òàêæå «èçâèíèòå». (Ñì. òàáë. 5) Ñóùåñòâåííûå ðàçëè÷èÿ ìåæäó ðóññêîÿçû÷íûì è àíãëîÿçû÷íûì êîììóíèêàíòàìè íàáëþäàþòñÿ â âûáîðå îòâåòíûõ ðåïëèê â ñëåäóþùèõ ñèòóàöèÿõ îáùåíèÿ. Åñëè âàì ÷òî-íèáóäü ïðåäëàãàþò, Òàáëèöà 4 âîçìîæíû òðè âàðèàíòà âåæëèâîãî àíãëèéñêîãî îòâåòà: No, thank you (â ñëó÷àå îòêàçà); à â ñëó÷àå ñîãëàñèÿ – Yes, please èëè Thank you (áåç Yes). Ôîðìóëà Yes, thank you óïîòðåáëÿåòñÿ íå äëÿ òîãî, ÷òîáû âûðàçèòü áëàãîäàðíîñòü, à ÷òîáû ïîäòâåðäèòü, ÷òî âàì äîñòàòî÷íî ïðåäëàãàåìîãî (êîëè÷åñòâà). Êîãäà íàäî ÷òî-òî ïåðåäàòü èëè ïîäàòü, íàïðèìåð âî âðåìÿ çàñòîëüÿ, âìåñòî ñëîâà please (íå óïîòðåáëÿåìîãî â êà÷åñòâå àíàëîãà ðóññêîãî «âîò, ïîæàëóéñòà») èñïîëüçóåòñÿ ôîðìóëà Here you are (AmE: There you go), êîòîðàÿ ìîæåò èìåòü ëîãè÷åñêîå ïðîäîëæåíèå – Help yourself, êîãäà ÷åëîâåêó ïðåäëàãàåòñÿ äàëåå äåéñòâîâàòü ñàìîìó. Êîãäà âàì ãîâîðÿò «ñïàñèáî», ìîæíî îòâåòèòü ïðè ïîìîùè ôðàç òèïà Not at all; You’re welcome; That’s (quite) alright, ôóíêöèîíèðóþùèõ ýêâèâàëåíòíî ðóññêîìó «ïîæàëóéñòà», (ò.ê. please íå óïîòðåáëÿåòñÿ â òàêèõ ñëó÷àÿõ; çàìåòèì òàêæå, ÷òî ôîðìóëà Don’t mention it, íåðåäêî ðåêîìåíäóåìàÿ â îòå÷åñòâåííûõ ðàçãîâîðíèêàõ, íå ÿâëÿåòñÿ íåéòðàëüíîé è õàðàêòåðíà â îñíîâíîì äëÿ ñóãóáî îôèöèàëüíîé áåñåäû). Îäíàêî íå òðåáóåòñÿ íèêàêîãî îòâåòà, êîãäà âàñ áëàãîäàðÿò çà îêàçàííûå ìåëêèå óñëóãè: âû ïîäàëè ïàëüòî äàìå èëè ïîäíÿëè óïàâøèé ïðåäìåò è ò.ï. Íåîáõîäèìî îòìåòèòü, ÷òî ÷ðåçìåðíîå óñåðäèå â ðàñòî÷åíèè ëþáåçíîñòåé ìîæåò îêàçàòüñÿ ñìåøíûì äëÿ âàøåãî ñîáåñåäíèêà. Îòâåò yes, of course, ñòîëü ïðèâû÷íûé äëÿ ðîññèÿí (íî îòíþäü íå ñòîëü ÷àñòîòíûé, êàê ðóññêîå «êîíå÷íî»), è ÷óòü áîëåå «ñîâðåìåííûé» âàðèàíò – sure, îêàçûâàåòñÿ, íå ýêâèâàëåíòíû certainly è íå ãîäÿòñÿ «íà âñå ñëó÷àè æèçíè» äëÿ âûðàæåíèÿ ñîãëàñèÿ. Áîëåå òîãî, èõ óïîòðåáëåíèå â îòâåò íà âîïðîñ, ñâÿçàííûé ñ ôàêòîëîãè÷åñêîé èíôîðìàöèåé (asking for information), âîñïðèíèìàåòñÿ êàê ãðóáîñòü, òàê êàê çíà÷åíèå of course ïðåäïîëàãàåò, ÷òî ôàêò íàÒàáëèöà 5 Examples Structure Form of Address Would you like some more tea? hedges I’m no psychologist, but that irregularity seems please/ “credentials” Don’t get the wrong idea, I’m not a racist, but “sin licenses” I realise that this may not be the time to speak about money but thank you/ Have you got enough sugar? here you are Have you got a cup I could use? cognitive disclaimers You might think I’m crazy, but let me explain the logic of the case. of course “appeals” 41 Please, thank you and of course Disclaimers Types of Disclaimers Íåêîòîðûå îñîáåííîñòè òðàêòîâêè íà÷àëà è çàâåðøåíèÿ áåñåäû Don’t say anything until I explain what really happened. Thank you. Have you ever tasted cold tea? Answer Thank please. Function you./( Yes,) accepting Yes, thank you. confirming Yes, here you are. handing over things (no answer) reply to thanks Why, yes, of course/ reply to sth obvious sure 42 Ëåêöèÿ ¹ 8 ñòîëüêî î÷åâèäåí, ÷òî âàì ñàìèì ñëåäîâàëî áû çíàòü îá ýòîì. Íàäî, îäíàêî, çàìåòèòü, ÷òî, â îòëè÷èå îò áðèòàíñêîãî, â àìåðèêàíñêîì âàðèàíòå sure ôóíêöèîíèðóåò â çíà÷åíèè certainly, è ýòà îñîáåííîñòü ðàñïðîñòðàíÿåòñÿ íà äðóãèå ðåãèîíû ìèðà. Òåì íå ìåíåå ÷òîáû íå ïîïàñòü âïðîñàê, ÷åëîâåêó, íå èñêóøåííîìó â òîíêîñòÿõ ñëîâîóïîòðåáëåíèÿ, ëó÷øå èñïîëüçîâàòü certainly èëè ñîîòâåòñòâóþùóþ ãëàãîëüíóþ êîíñòðóêöèþ: It’s hot here. – It certainly is. Do you speak French? – Yes, I do. Îòâåòíûå ðåïëèêè âûðàæåíèÿ èçâèíåíèÿ, ñîæàëåíèÿ è îòêàçà äëÿ ðîññèÿí íåðåäêî ñëóæàò èñòî÷íèêîì èíòåðôåðåíöèè, îñíîâàííûì íà îøèáî÷íîì âûáîðå ôîðìóë sorry è excuse me. Ðàññìîòðèì íåñêîëüêî ðàñïðîñòðàí¸ííûõ ïðèìåðîâ. (Ñì. òàáë. 6) Ñëîâåñíîå îôîðìëåíèå èçâèíåíèÿ èëè ñîæàëåíèÿ êàê â ðóññêîì, òàê è â àíãëèéñêîì ÿçûêàõ âî ìíîãîì çàâèñèò îò êîíòåêñòà ñèòóàöèè. Òàê, åñëè âû ïðè÷èíèëè êîìó-òî íåóäîáñòâî, ñëó÷àéíî îáèäåëè èëè âàì óêàçàëè íà êàêóþ-ëèáî äîïóùåííóþ âàìè ãðóáóþ îøèáêó, âàø îòâåò äîëæåí áûòü äîñòàòî÷íî ïðîñòðàííûì è ñîäåðæàòü – ïîìèìî êëþ÷åâîãî ñëîâà sorry – ïîäîáàþùèå ñèòóàöèè îáúÿñíåíèÿ (ñð. overstatement). Íàïðèìåð, åñëè âû ïðè÷èíèëè óùåðá (ñêàæåì, òîëêíóëè êîãî-òî è îïðîêèíóëè åãî ñòàêàí âîäû), òî, ïðèíîñÿ ñâîè èçâèíåíèÿ, âàì ïðèäåòñÿ: 1) ïðèíÿòü íà ñåáÿ îïðåäåëåííóþ äîëþ îòâåòñòâåííîñòè çà ñëó÷èâøååñÿ (It’s my fault! How extremely awkward of me!) 2) ïðåäëîæèòü âîçìåñòèòü íàíåñ¸ííûé óùåðá (I’ll pay for it! Let me buy you another one!) 3) îáúÿñíèòü ïðèâåäøèå ê ýòîìó ïðè÷èíû (That’s the patch on the floor It’s so slippery here ) Sorry and excuse me sorry / excuse me sorry / please Form of Address Answer Function Do you mind? That’s my plate! I am sorry. I didn’t realise... apologising Excuse me, could I have some jam? Here you are. Help yourself attracting attention Sorry, did I take your spoon? Oh, never mind, it’s alright apologising Can I borrow your dictionary? No, please don’t / I’m refusing sorry, but... May I use your telephone? Oh, well, alright / Please granting permission do 43 Ïîêàçàòåëüíî ïðè ýòîì ñâîåîáðàçíîå îòðàæåíèå öåííîñòíûõ îðèåíòàöèé áðèòàíöåâ è àìåðèêàíöåâ â îòìå÷åííîì ñòðåìëåíèè íåïðåìåííî ïðåäëîæèòü ìàòåðèàëüíóþ êîìïåíñàöèþ – ÷åðòà, ïðàêòè÷åñêè íå õàðàêòåðíàÿ äëÿ êîììóíèêàòèâíîãî ïîâåäåíèÿ ðîññèÿí, êîòîðûå â òàêèõ ñèòóàöèÿõ, êàê ïðàâèëî, îãðàíè÷èâàþòñÿ âûðàæåíèåì ñîæàëåíèé èëè – ïðè íåîáõîäèìîñòè – îêàçàíèåì ðåàëüíîé ïîìîùè, ÷òîáû èñïðàâèòü ïîëîæåíèå.  ìåíåå «ñåðüåçíûõ» ñëó÷àÿõ ìîæíî ñâåñòè âûñêàçûâàåìûå èçâèíåíèÿ ê ïðîñòûì I am sorry (ñ ïîä÷åðêíóòûì óäàðåíèåì íà am), à åñëè, íàïðèìåð, âû ÷èõíóëè, èëè ñëó÷àéíî çàäåëè êîãî-òî, èëè ïðîñòî ïðîøëè áëèçêî (ïóñòü äàæå íå êàñàÿñü), îáû÷íî ãîâîðÿò Excuse me!  ýòîé ñâÿçè ñëåäóåò îòìåòèòü, ÷òî ðîññèÿíàì ñâîéñòâåííà îïðåäåë¸ííàÿ íåðàçáîð÷èâîñòü â âûáîðå ñàìèõ ôîðìóë èçâèíåíèÿ excuse me/ sorry, – âåðîÿòíî, â ñèëó êàæóùåãî ñõîäñòâà èõ çíà÷åíèé. Íà ñàìîì äåëå ó íèõ äîñòàòî÷íî ÷¸òêî î÷åð÷åííàÿ ñôåðà óïîòðåáëåíèÿ: excuse me ãîâîðèòñÿ ïðåæäå, ÷åì âû êîãî-òî ïîáåñïîêîèëè (â òîì ÷èñëå ñ öåëüþ ïðèâëå÷ü âíèìàíèå), à sorry èëè åãî áîëåå ôîðìàëüíûé âàðèàíò I beg your pardon – â êà÷åñòâå èçâèíåíèÿ, ïîñëå ïðè÷èí¸ííîãî áåñïîêîéñòâà (à òàêæå, êîãäà íàäî ïåðåñïðîñèòü); â àìåðèêàíñêîì âàðèàíòå, ïðàâäà, excuse me = sorry – èçâèíåíèå, à I beg your pardon = excuse me – ïðèâëå÷åíèå âíèìàíèÿ. È â çàêëþ÷åíèå ñëåäóåò óïîìÿíóòü åù¸ îäíó îñîáåííîñòü èñïîëüçîâàíèÿ ôîðìóëû «ïîæàëóéñòà». Àíãëèéñêîå please, íåçàìåíèìîå äëÿ ñìÿã÷åíèÿ ïðèêàçà èëè çàïðåòà (will you please.../ please, don’t...), íå óïîòðåáëÿåòñÿ, êîãäà äàåòñÿ ðàçðåøåíèå (ñð. ðóñ.: Ìîæíî ïîçâîíèòü? – Äà, ïîæàëóéñòà.); èíîãäà âñòðå÷àþùàÿñÿ ôîðìà Please do õàðàêòåðíà äëÿ âåñüìà îôèöèàëüíîé áåñåäû, à íåéòðàëüíûìè ðåïëèêàìè áóäóò alright/ go ahead/ certainly è ò.ï. ÈÒÎÃÎÂÀß ÐÀÁÎÒÀ Òàáëèöà 6 Structure Íåêîòîðûå îñîáåííîñòè òðàêòîâêè íà÷àëà è çàâåðøåíèÿ áåñåäû Èòîãîâàÿ ðàáîòà ñîñòîèò èç 2-õ ÷àñòåé – ïðàêòè÷åñêîé è àíàëèòè÷åñêîé. Ïðàêòè÷åñêàÿ ÷àñòü ïðåäñòàâëÿåòñÿ â âèäå (íà âûáîð): 1) Êîìïëåêñíîé ïðîâåðî÷íîé ðàáîòû, âêëþ÷àþùåé òåñòîâûå çàäàíèÿ ïî âñåìó êóðñó (ïî àíàëîãèè ñ êîíòðîëüíûìè, ïðèâîäèìûìè â ãàçåòå, íî â ïîëîâèíó îáúåìà). 2) Ïëàíà-êîíñïåêòà óðîêà èëè òåêñò âûñòóïëåíèÿ íà ÌÎ ñ ñîîáùåíèåì îá îñíîâíûõ èäåÿõ êóðñà èëè î ðåçóëüòàòàõ ñâîåé ðàáîòû ïî âíåäðåíèþ ìàòåðèàëà êóðñà. 3) Ïëàíà / ðàáî÷åé ïðîãðàììû äëÿ ïåðñïåêòèâíîé ó÷åáíîé äåÿòåëüíîñòè (íàïðèìåð, â ðàìêàõ êðàòêîñðî÷íîãî ñïåöñåìèíàðà èëè ñåðèè óðîêîâ) íà áàçå ïðåäëîæåííîãî êóðñà. 44 Ëåêöèÿ ¹ 8 Àíàëèòè÷åñêàÿ ÷àñòü ïðåäïîëàãàåò îöåíêó è îáîáùåíèå ðåçóëüòàòîâ âàøåãî îáó÷åíèÿ è ïðåäñòàâëÿåòñÿ â âèäå îò÷åòà â ïðîèçâîëüíîé ôîðìå, êîòîðûé ìîæåò ñîäåðæàòü âàøè èíòåðåñíûå íàáëþäåíèÿ, çàìå÷àíèÿ îòíîñèòåëüíî âîçíèêàþùèõ ïðîáëåì, ïîæåëàíèÿ íà áóäóùåå. Åñëè áûëà âîçìîæíîñòü âíåäðåíèÿ, â îò÷åò ìîæíî âêëþ÷èòü ñðàâíåíèå ðåçóëüòàòîâ, íàïðèìåð, ïî ðàçëè÷íûì ïàðàëëåëÿì. Ìîæíî òàêæå ïðåäëîæèòü ó÷àùèìñÿ ïðîàíàëèçèðîâàòü ÷åðòû ñõîäñòâà è ðàçëè÷èÿ ïðè óïîòðåáëåíèè ðå÷åâûõ îáîðîòîâ â àíãëèéñêîì è ðóññêîì ÿçûêàõ. Àêò î âíåäðåíèè, çàâåðåííûé â âàøåì îáðàçîâàòåëüíîì ó÷ðåæäåíèè, íåîáõîäèìî âûñëàòü âìåñòå ñ èòîãîâîé ðàáîòîé. Ñîäåðæàíèå Ëåêöèÿ ¹ 5. Ñìÿã÷åíèå ïîñðåäñòâîì âîïðîñîâ .................................................. 3 Ëåêöèÿ ¹ 6. Ñòðàòåãèè ïîääåðæêè ñîáåñåäíèêà ............................................... 14 Ëåêöèÿ ¹ 7. Ñòðàòåãèè ïîääåðæàíèÿ êîíòàêòà ................................................ 24 Ëåêöèÿ ¹ 8. Íåêîòîðûå îñîáåííîñòè òðàêòîâêè íà÷àëà è çàâåðøåíèÿ áåñåäû ..................................................................... 34