Epithet

Epithet is a SD based on the interaction of a logical and emotive meaning of a word, word combination, phrase in an attributive function aimed at emphasizing some quality of a person, thing, phenomenon with the task of revealing the evaluative subjective attitude of the writer towards the thing described. For example: mysterious woman; a small barrel of a woman; hypocritical gossip; sleeping face. Epithets should not be confused with logical attributes. Logical epithets do not have expressive power but indicate those qualities that may be regarded as generally recognized (round table; green meadows; wooden chair) Though sometimes it is rather difficult to draw a clear line of demarcation between epithet and logical attribute. In some passages the logical attribute becomes so strongly enveloped in the emotional aspect of the utterance that it begins to radiate emotiveness though by nature it is logically descriptive. Epithets are deemed to be two-fold in nature as their striking effect is owed both to semantics and structure. Thus, Professor I. Galperin and Kukharenko classify epithets according to 2 standpoints – semantic and structural. Semantically prof. I. Galperin singles out : Associated epithets – pointing to a feature which is essential to the object they describe. The idea expressed is to a certain extent inherent in the concept of the object. For ex.: fantastic terrors; dreary midnight. Unassociated epithets are attributes used to characterize the object by adding a feature not inherent in it, i.e. a feature which may be so unexpected as to strike the reader by its novelty. The adjectives do not indicate any property inherent in the objects by fitting in the given circumstances only, as in “heartburning smile”; “voiceless sounds”; “sleepless pillow”. As far as novelty is concerned epithets can be trite and genuine. Through long and repeated use epithets turn into fixed without losing their flavor. Such epithets are mostly used in ballads, clichéd forms. For example: merry Christmas. Kukharenko singles out: affective (or emotive proper) epithets serving to convey the emotional evaluation of the object by the speaker. Most of the qualifying words found in the dictionary can be and are used as effective epithets. For example: gorgeous; magnificent, atrocious. Figurative or transferred epithets are formed of metaphors, metonymies and similes expressed by adjectives. Thus, epithets can also be based on the principle of similarity of characteristics, on nearness of the qualified objects and on their comparison respectively. For example: her painful shoes slipped off (Updyke) Professor Skrebnev points out that epithets can be metaphorical, metonymic and ironical. As far as structural division is concerned the classifications of the scholars have more points in common. Despite the differences in terms, in essence they are very much alike. Professor Galperin differentiates between: Simple , compound, phrase, string, reversed epithets. Simple epithets are ordinary adjectives (one epithet is used at a time). For example: the mysterious woman. Compound epithets are built like some compound adjectives. For example: a cloud-shapen giant. Phrase epithets can consist of a phrase or even a sentence in which words are crammed into one language unit. Structural elements generally include words, expression, air, attitude describing behavious or facial expression; b) Attributive clauses beginning with that forms. c) Phrase epithets are usually hyphenated, thus pointing to the temporary structure of the compound word. They always produce an original impression. For example: a move if you dare expression (J. Baldwin) String epithets or chain epithets give a many-sided description of the object. But in the enumeration of comparatively homogeneous attributes there is always a suggestion of an ascending order of emotive elements, culminating in the last one. For example: You are a scolding, unjust, abusive, aggravating, bad old creature! (Ch. Dickens) Reversed (inverted) epithets are composed of two nouns linked in an of-phrase. The subjective, evaluative , emotional element is embodied not in the noun attributebut in the noun described as a “small barrel of a woman”. The epithets like this are called reversed or inverted as what is syntactically an attribute (of a woman) is, in fact, the word which is really defined. Kukharenko differentiates between single, pair, phrase epithets, chain, inverted, two-step. Pair epithets are represented by two epithets joined by a conjunction or asyndetically. For example: wonderful and incomparable beauty (Oscar Wilde) Tired old town (Harper Lee) Phrase epithets can consist of a phrase or even a sentence in which words are crammed into one language unit. In the overwhelming majority of examples epithet is expressed by adjectives or qualitative adverbs (e.g. “his triumphant look” = he looked triumphantly).* Nouns come next. They are used either as exclamatory sentences (“You, ostrich!”) or as postpositive attributes (“Alonzo the Clown”, “Richard of the Lion Heart”). Epithets are used singly, in pairs, in chains, in two step structures, and in inverted constructions, also as phrase attributes. All previously given examples demonstrated single epithets. Pairs are represented by two epithets joined by a conjunction or asyndetically as in “wonderful and incomparable beauty” (O.W.) or “a tired old town” (H.L.). Chains (also called strings) of epithets present a group of homogene ous attributes varying in number from three up to sometimes twenty and even more. E.g. “You’re a scolding, unjust, abusive, aggravating, bad old creature.” (D.) From the last example it is evident that if a logical attribute (which in our case is the word “old”) is included into the chain of epithets, it begins to shine with their reflected light, i.e. the subjectivity of epithets irradiates onto the logical attribute and adapts it for expressive purposes, along with epithets proper. Two step epithets are so called because the process of qualifying seemingly passes two stages: the qualification of the object and the qualification of the qualification itself, as in “an unnaturally mild day” (Hut.), or “a pompously majestic female”. (D.) As you see from the examples, two step epithets have a fixed structure of Adv + Adj model. Phrase epithets always produce an original impression. Cf.: “the sunshine in the breakfast room smell” (J.B.), or “a move if you dare expression”. (Gr.) Their originality proceeds from the fact of the rare repetition of the once coined phrase epithet which, in its turn, is explained by the fact that into a phrase epithet is turned a semantically self-sufficient word combination or even a whole sentence, which loses some of its independence and self sufficiency, becoming a member of another sentence, and strives to return to normality. The forcible manner of this syntactical transformation is the main obstacle for repeated use of such phrasally structured epithets. A different linguistic mechanism is responsible for the emergence of one more structural type of epithets, namely, inverted epithets. They are based on the contradiction between the logical and the syntactical: logically defining becomes syntactically defined and vice versa. E.g. instead of “this devilish woman”, where “devilish” is both logically and syntactically defining, and “woman” also both logically and syntactically defined, W. Thackeray says “this devil of a woman”. Here “of a woman” is syntactically an attribute, i.e. the defining, and “devil”—the defined, while the logical relations between the two re main the same as in the previous example—“a woman” is defined by “the devil”. All inverted epithets are easily transformed into epithets of a more habitual structure where there is no logico-syntactical contradiction. Cf.: “the giant of a man” (a gigantic man); “the prude of a woman” (a prudish woman), etc. When meeting an inverted epithet do not mix it up with an ordinary of phrase. Here the article with the second noun will help you in doubtful cases: “the toy of the girl” (the toy belonging to the girl); “the toy of a girl” (a small, toylike girl), or “the kitten of the woman” (the cat belonging to the woman); “the kitten of a wom an” (a kittenlike woman). With the use of epithets, writers are able to describe their characters and settings more vividly, in order to give richer meanings to the text. Since they are used as a literary tool, epithets help in making the description of someone or something broader and hence easier to understand. With the help of epithets, writers and poets develop suitable images in fewer words. Besides, the metaphorical use of epithets helps in making poetry and prose vibrant and strong. Oxymoron is a SD based on the combination of two semantically contradictory notions, that help to emphasise contradictory qualities simultaneously existing in the described phenomenon as a dialectical unity (V.A.Kucharenko). For example: “low skyscraper", “sweet sorrow", “nice rascal", “pleasantly ugly face". Oxymorons are generally introduced through attributive constructions but there are some cases when verbs and adverbs are used. For example: Streets damaged with improvements. To cry silenty; to shout mutely. Oxymorons rarely become trite because their components being opposite in nature seem to repulse each other. Though there are few colloquial oxymorons showing a high degree of the speaker’s emotional involvement into the communicative situation. For example: awfully nice, damn perfect, bloody interesting. It is important to understand the difference between an oxymoron and a paradox. A paradox may consist of a sentence, or even a group of sentences. An oxymoron, on the other hand, is a combination of two contradictory or opposite words. A paradox seems contradictory to the general truth, but it does contain an implied truth. An oxymoron, however, may produce a dramatic effect, but does not make literal sense. Examples of oxymoron are found both in casual conversations and in literature. Oxymoron produces a dramatic effect in both prose and poetry. For instance, when we read or hear the famous oxymoron, “sweet sorrow,” crafted by Shakespeare, it appeals to us instantly. It provokes our thoughts, and makes us ponder the meaning of contradicting ideas. This apparently confusing phrase expresses the complex nature of love, that can never be expressed through simple words. In everyday conversation, however, people do not use oxymoron to make deep statements like the one above. Instead, they do it to show wit. The use of oxymoron adds flavor to their speech. Antithesis. This phenomenon is incomparably more frequent than oxymoron. The term 'antithesis' (from Greek anti 'against'; thesis 'statement') has a broad range of meanings. It denotes any active confrontation, emphasized co-occurrence of notions, really or presumably contrastive. The most natural, or regular expression of antithesis is the use of words with the opposite meaning in syntactically similar patterns. Antithesis emphasizes the idea of contrast by parallel structures of the contrasted phrases or clauses. The structures of phrases and clauses are similar, in order to draw the attention of the listeners or readers. For example: For example: “Setting foot on the moon may be a small step for a man but a giant step for mankind.” The use of contrasting ideas, “a small step” and “a giant step,” in the sentence above emphasizes the significance of one of the biggest landmarks of human history. Some famous antithetical statements have become part of our everyday speech, and are frequently used in arguments and discussions. Below is a list of some common antithetical statements: · Give every man thy ear, but few thy voice. · Man proposes, God disposes. · Love is an ideal thing, marriage a real thing. · Speech is silver, but silence is gold. · Patience is bitter, but it has a sweet fruit. · Money is the root of all evil: poverty is the fruit of all goodness. · You are easy on the eyes, but hard on the heart. In literature, writers employ antithesis not only in sentences, but also in characters and events. Thus, its use is extensive. Below are a few examples of antithesis in literature: For example: A Tale of Two Cities (By Charles Dickens) The opening lines of Charles Dickens’ novel A Tale of Two Cities provides an unforgettable antithesis example: “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to Heaven, we were all going direct the other way.” The contrasting ideas, set in parallel structures, markedly highlight the conflict that existed in the time discussed in the novel. Antithesis is not only an expressive device used in every type of emotional speech (poetry, imaginative prose, oratory, colloquial speech), but also, like any other stylistic means, the basis of set phrases, some of which are not necessarily emphatic unless pronounced with special force. Antonomasia is a SD based on the use of a common name as a proper noun and the use of a proper noun as a common name. The term is derived from the Greek word antonomazein meaning to name differently. A title, epithet, or descriptive phrase may serve as a substitute for a personal name. It includes “speaking names”, characterizing the person meant. For example: Mr. Snake, Mrs. Dirty Fringe, Mr. Altruism. There are two types of antonomasia: trite and genuine. In trite antonomasia the association between the name and the qualities of the bearer is a result of long and frequent usage (Don Juan, Brutus). In genuine antonomasia this association is unexpected, fresh. For example: He’d met Miss Original Pure and planned to marry her (F.Weldon). Antonomasia may serve: • to designate a member of a group or class; • to characterize the bearer of the name; . • to create humorous effect, For example: When I eventually met Mr. Right I had no idea that his first name was Always (R.Rudner). Allusion is a SD based on the principle of deliberate reference to some famous social, literary, Biblical, mythological, historical facts. If the audience is familiar with the event or person, they will also know background and context. Thus, just a few words are enough to create a certain picture (or scene) in the readers’ minds. The advantages are as follows: § We don’t need lengthy explanations to clarify the problem. § The reader becomes active by reflecting on the analogy. § The message will stick in the reader's mind. Examples: § the Scrooge Syndrome (allusion on the rich, grieve and mean Ebeneezer Scrooge from Charles Dickens’ “Christmas Carol”) § The software included a Trojan Horse. (allusion on the Trojan horse from Greek mythology) § Plan ahead. It was not raining when Noah built the Ark. (Richard Cushing) (allusion on the biblical Ark of Noah) Many allusions on historic events, mythology or the Bible have become famous idioms. Examples: § to meet one’s Waterloo (allusion on Napoleons defeat in the Battle of Waterloo) § to wash one’s hands of it (allusion on Pontius Pilatus, who sentenced Jesus to death, but washed his hands afterwards to demonstrate that he was not to blame for it.) Thus, allusion is regarded as a perfect way to create a sort of expressive colouring for the situation described unless the recipient has sufficient volume of background knowledge. Intensification of a feature (simile, hyperbole, periphrasis) Simile, (imaginative comparison) is a SD regarded as an explicit statement of partial identity (affinity, likeness, similarity) of two objects belonging to two different classes. The word identity is only applicable to certain features of the objects compared: in fact, the objects cannot be identical; they are only similar, they resemble each other due to some identical features. A simile has manifold forms, semantic features and expressive aims. As already mentioned, a simile may be combined with or accompanied by another stylistic device, or it may achieve one stylistic effect or another. Thus it is often based on the exaggeration of properties described. For example: Darkness fell like a stone; She sings like a nightingale. Unlike a metaphor, a simile draws resemblance with the help of the words regarded as formal elements of simile: 1. a pair of objects (The one which is compared is called the tenor, the one with which it is compared is called the vehicle); 2. a connective: • conjunctions: like, as, than, as if, as though, such as; • affixes (suffixes): -wise, -like (ape-like fury); We can find simile examples in our daily speech. We often hear comments like, “John is as slow as a snail.” Snails are notorious for their slow pace, and here the slowness of John is compared to that of a snail. The use of “as” in the example helps to draw the resemblance. Thus, the examples of similes of this kind, being often repeated, lose their original expressiveness and acquire the status of trite ones. Common Examples of Simile · Our soldiers are as brave as lions. · Her cheeks are red like a rose. · He is as funny as a monkey. · The water well was as dry as a bone. · He is as cunning as a fox. Still, there are some examples of simile where the connectors are not as visible, being expressed by notional verbs “seem”, “resemble”, “appear”, “to remind of”, “to be similar to”, “to bear a resemblance to”, “to have a look of”, though the utter goal of figurative comparison is not lost. Then we deal with the situation of disguised simile, possessing a strong expressive power. The term “disguised simile” was introduced by V.A. Kukharenko. For example: She seemed nothing more than a doll. Simile should not be confused with ordinary logical comparison where the compared elements just reflect the evident fact: For example: The boy is as clever as his mother. Simile Meaning and Function So what is a simile and its purpose? From the above discussion of simile examples, we can infer the function of similes, both in everyday life and in literature. Using similes attracts attention, and appeals directly to the senses of listeners or readers, encouraging their imaginations to understand what is being communicated. Also, it brings rhythm, life-like quality in our daily speech and the characters of fiction or poetry. Simile allows readers to relate the feelings of a writer or a poet to their personal experiences. Therefore, the use of similes makes it easier for the readers to understand the subject matter of a literary text, which may have been otherwise too demanding to be comprehended. Like metaphors, similes also offer variety in our ways of thinking and offer new perspectives on the world. Hyperbole is a SD based on the principle of deliberate exaggeration of some features essential to an object, person, concept, phenomenon, process. It is undoubtedly labeled as an exaggerated statement. It presents a deliberate distortion of proportions and is not meant to be taken literally. Hyperbole may be used due to highly emotional attitude of the speaker towards the subject discussed. For example: I’ve been on the road longer than asphalt. His hands dangled a mile out of his sleeves and feet might have served for shovels (W. Irving). Hyperbole is often referred to in colloquial speech. Many colloquial hyperboles are trite as their repeated use transform the way it sounds, eliminating the chances to sound striking and appealing. For example: 1 nearly died laughing. I’ve told you forty times. He was frightened to death. Haven’t seen you for ages. Such expressions may lose their expressive power due to their frequent use and often come unobserved in the flow of speech: neither the listener, nor sometimes even the speaker notice the exaggeration. In poetry and prose hyperbole is noticed and appreciated by the reader. A genuine hyperbole is “exaggeration on a big scale. There must be something illogical in it, something unreal, utterly impossible, contrary to common sense, and even stunning by its suddenness” (Y.M. Skrebnev). For example: Dr Johnson drank his tea in oceans (T.B.Macaulay). Hyperbole is used: • to serve expressive and emotive purposes; • to emphasize quantity or quality by exaggerating it; For example: My aunt is so fat that every time she turns around it’s her birthday. His sister is so skinny, she has to run around in the shower to get wet. • to produce some humorous effect; For example: “It must have been that caviar”, he was thinking. “That beastly caviar”. He violently hated caviar. Every sturgeon in the Black Sea was his personal enemy (Al. Huxley). Hyperbole is often combined with other stylistic devices - metaphor, simile, irony, For example: He gave me a look that could set asbestos on fire (D. Fransis). Hyperbole can be expressed by nearly all notional parts of speech and thus, performs different syntactical functions in the sentence. Litotes is a specific variety of meiosis, expressing an idea by the negation of the opposite idea. Thus, “she is not unattractive” means “attractive” but the positive meaning in the negative construction is weaker. Litotes can be of different kinds: • a construction with the particle not and the word with affixes expressing a negative, lack or opposite, For example: She was not unhappy with him. He was not brainless. • negation of the antonym, e.g. It’s not a stupid answer. • a construction with the negative particle and preposition “without”, For example: A prophet is not without honor, except in his own country (A prophet is honored everywhere except in his country). Litotes is used in different styles of speech. Its main stylistic functions are: • it enhances the effect of the expressed ideas through their apparent weakening, For example: The English poet Thomas Gray showed no inconsiderable powers as a prose writer (Gray was in fact a very good prose writer); • it is used to impress by moderation, to make statements and judgments sound less categorical, more diplomatic, For example: Your decision is not unreasonable. • In the style of scientific prose it is employed to show that the author expresses his thoughts with caution, For example: It is not uncommon for grammarians to distinguish between language- dependent superficial grammatical forms and the deeper principles underlying them; • it expresses irony. For example: The place Florien runs is not so bad (good). Nobody has been knifed here in a month (R.Chandler). (The ironic effect is achieved by means of the contrast between what is said and what is implied). Generally litotes performs the function of weakening the effect of the utterance. Periphrasis is a stylistic device where the meaning of a word or phrase is indirectly expressed through several or many words by way of circumlocution.. This way of identifying the object of speech is related to metonymy. The distinction between these two terms is that periphrasis can not be expressed by one linguistic unit; it always consists of more than one word. Thus, calling a gun shooter, the speakers use a trite metonymy, calling it the instrument of law, the instrument of destruction, they use a periphrasis. This stylistic device has a long history. It was widely used in the Bible. Some occurrences are: He Who is sitting on the throng - the Deity. In past epochs, periphrasis was also employed to achieve a more elegant manner of expression. Thus, Melville characterizes Renaissance as “a high hour of renovated earth following the second deluge, when the waters of the Dark Ages had dried up and once more the green appeared”. In contemporary prose, periphrasis is used: •to bring out and intensify some features or properties of the given object, For example: Luckily you have a bottle of the stuff that cheers and inebriates (J.K.Jerome) ; •to avoid monotonous repetition; •to create humorous effect. The essence of the device is that it is decipherable only in context. Periphrasis may be classified into a) figurative and b) logical. Figurative periphrasis is based either on metaphor or on metonymy, For example: The hospital was crowded with the surgically interesting products of fighting in Africa. In this case the extended metonymy stands for wounded. To tie a knot - to get married; in disgrace of fortune - bad luck. Logical periphrasis is based on one of the inherent properties or perhaps a passing feature of the object described, e.g. guardian of public order – policeman; If a Periphrasis is understandable outside the context it is not a Stylistic Device and it is called traditional, dictionary or language periphrasis. Here are some examples of well-known English periphrases: “my better half” (my wife), “a gentleman of the long robe” (a lower). Such periphrases gained wide currency become trite and serve as a universally accepted periphrastic synonyms. From the above examples of periphrasis, one could surmise that this literary device is used to embellish sentences by creating splendid effects to draw readers’ attention. These periphrasis examples have also shown that the use of this literary device lends poetic flavor to prose. Periphrasis is a feature of analytical language that tends to shun inflection.