Documenting research results

РЭУ им. Г.В. Плеханова Кафедра предпринимательства и логистики Lecture 3: documenting research results к.э.н. Завьялов Дмитрий Вадимович [email protected] [email protected] Documenting research results (Thesis) Thesis composition Subject headings and outline Language and style Document editing Language, style, format • Personal vs. impersonal “I measured the frequency at regular intervals.” “The frequency was measured at regular intervals.” • Formal vs. informal     Use neutral words Avoid controversial labels and descriptions Avoid slang and contractions (don’t, couldn’t, won’t) Careful in translating from you native language • Political correctness • References How plagiarism is detected • Student’s paper sounding too professional or journalistic exceeding his/her research writing capabilities • Student’s paper contains complex or specialized vocabulary, technical terms or other words beyond the student’s expected writing level • Inconsistency of writing quality • Plagiarism detection software (Copyscape, Antiplagiat, Grammarly) • Online search engines General remarks • • • • • • Do your best with what you have Assumptions and limitations are your conclusions’ “Firewall” Every statement has its sources: either prior research or your findings Thus, everything you say can be used against you Graphs are to support the author’s point, and not to pose additional questions Data-graphs-text must be easy to switch from one another Logical order Theory, literature review Define problem Hypothesis Test Interpretation Formulate answers Applicability, world impact Sample outline 1. Introduction • • • • 2. Chapter 1 (Background and methodology) 1. 2. 3. 3. Definition of terms Theoretical background Background info (e.g. company, industry info) Chapter 2 (Research) 1. 2. 3. 4. 4. Introductory paragraphs, statement of the problem Theoretical framework Hypothesis, significance of the study Scope and limitations, assumptions Type of research Sampling method, respondents, questionnaire Procedure and timeframe Analysis plan, validity and reliability, assumptions Chapter 3 (Results and conclusion) 1. Presentation and analysis of data 2. Discussion of findings, explaining why such results were obtained 3. Overall conclusion and recommendations Bibliography Appendix Introductory part • General presentation of the research problem • Convince the reader that you have identified a research problem, worthy of investigating • Purpose and exact direction of the paper • Establish Rationale: research is necessary questions for which there is no answer yet • Author’s intent  Keep it short  Define the problem  Keep it organized Objectives • Provide a clear statement of the overall question- General problem • Follow it with action oriented task - Specific objective • If more than one specific objective state them sequentially Introduction • Statement of the problem  Thesis statement or hypothesis statement • Significance of the study Relevance of the study Relation to larger issues in our society Justify the need to conduct your research • Scope and limitations  Weaknesses in your experiment • Assumptions Background • Theory and literature review  keep it short • Definition of terms Explain complex or technical terms Operational definitions List of abbreviations • Country, industry, company etc.  Only relevant data Methodology • • Explain the choice of methods Description of the materials and equipment used in the research • Explanation of how the samples were gathered and prepared, details of techniques used  Extra data goes in the appendix • Explanation of how measurements were made and what calculations were performed upon the raw data Methodology and research • State the choice of methods explicitly • Enough detail for the reader to follow • First give an overall summary of your study design and • • methodological approach. Then provide the methodology for each specific objective. Describe • • • • • the specific design (what will you do and how, number of replicates, etc.), the materials and techniques that are used the feasibility of these techniques use literature to support design, materials & techniques need not to explain standard procedures – but give a reference Results and conclusion • • • • • • Do not include to much info – only the relevant things Describe the course of experiment and what you found Do not use vague explanations - use facts and figures For quantitative research use numerical data; for qualitative research – include observations Include negative results Use tables, pictures, graphs     Easy to read and comprehend Use only if relevant If small – put them within the text itself Must contain as much as it needs but no more than necessary Discussion • • • • • • • Your own interpretation of the work Explain links and correlation in your data Explain the meaning of the results Underline the significance of your study: results always generate something of value Be honest and criticize the experiment a bit. Suggest modifications and improvements Compare the results with previous research Explain how the results of your research change the world but do not be too broad in your generalization. You probably can not change the world that much Conclusion • • • • • What has your research shown?  Sum up the paper  Brief description of results How has it contributed?  Importance of the study  Benefits to the readers (industry, company) What were the shortcomings?  Problems with research methods and them influence on the final result Unanswered questions?  Openness for future research Can the results be used in the real world? Pitfalls • • • • • Grammar and punctuation Person and tense Waffling One-sided Readability and flow Proofreader? • • • Hire someone competent Allow at least 48 hours to pass before proofreading yourself Promise to buy a beer or two for a friend if he/she reads through your work Graphical excellence The principals of Graphical Excellence (GE) are: • GE is the well-designed presentation of interesting data – a matter of substance, of statistics, and of design. • GE consists of complex ideas communicated with clarity, precision, and efficiency. • GE is that which gives to the viewer the greatest number of ideas in the shortest time with the least ink in the smallest space. Pie Chart • Good for comparing similar data • Check to be sure the percentages add up to 100% • Beware of slices of the pie called "Other" If your goal is to manipulate, mislead, or cheat use sophisticated Graphical Displays 3% 9% 2% Var1 Var2 Var3 Var4 Var5 Var6 Var7 Var8 Var9 Var10 Var11 Var12 Var13 VAr14 5% 8% 11% 9% 3% 18% 6% 4% 7% 6% 12% Avoid three-dimensional pie charts; they don't show the slices in their proper proportions Var1 Var2 Var3 Var4 Var5 Var6 Var1 Var2 Var3 Var4 Var5 Var6 13% 23% 16% 17% 12% 19% Distortion: to change slice circumference (perimeter) Distortion: to hide angles and straightness of the line 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 1 2 3 4 1% 4% 1973 2000 Nuclear 23% 19% Renewable 11% 6% Coal 20% Oil Gas Oil Gas Renewable 22% Coal 53% Nuclear 41% Graphs should not be too complex: it causes additional questions Graphs should not be too simple Polar bear population •The World Wildlife Fund (WWF) has written on the threats posed to polar bears from global warming Source: WWF, “Polar Bears at risk” Polar bear population • • • • However, also according to them, about 20 distinct polar bear populations exist, accounting for approximately 22,000 polar bears worldwide. Only 2 of the groups are decreasing, 10 populations are stable, 2 populations are increasing. The status of the remaining 6 populations is unknown If you only looked at the 2 groups that are decreasing, it would be easy to say that “Polar Bear Population is “Decreasing”. You need to look at the whole picture to get the whole story. 16% Stable 45% 14% Unknown Increasing 25% Source: WWF, “Polar Bears at risk” Decreasing Total Number of employees 6000 5000 4000 3000 Total Number of employees 2000 1000 2009 2010 2011 This bar chart shows us total number of employees in all respondent companies in 2009 till 2011. The total number of employees was extending each year. In 2009 the number of employees equals 3787. In 2010 this figure put up and reached 4307. Finally in 2011 total amount of employees climbed to 5274 people. So I can make a conclusion that if the number of employees has been growing each year than government support helps to create new jobs. Bar Chart: money spent on transportation by people in different household-income groups How Graphs Can Distort Statistics 520 510 500 490 Number Drawn No. of Times Drawn out of 4,839 Percentage of Times Drawn (No. of Times Drawn ÷ 4,839) 480 470 460 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 485 468 513 491 484 480 487 482 475 474 10.0% 9.7% 10.6% 10.1% 10.0% 9.9% 10.1% 10.0% 9.8% 9.8% 450 440 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 12,0% 10,0% 8,0% 6,0% 4,0% 2,0% 0,0% 4 5 6 7 8 9 Time Chart • Check out the scale and start/end points on the vertical axis. Large increments and/or lots of white space make differences look less dramatic; small increments and/or a plot that totally fills the page exaggerate reality • It's misleading to show equally spaced points on the horizontal (time) axis for 1990, 2000, 2005, and 2010 • Make sure it is appropriate to compare the units on the vertical axis over time. Time Chart 12 11 10 10 9 8 8 6 7 4 6 2 5 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 4 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 Other distortions 600 600 500 500 400 400 300 300 200 200 100 100 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 1980 1985 1000 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 160% 140% 120% 100 100% 80% 60% 10 40% 20% 0% 1 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2015 Personnel satisfaction with medical equipment 0,8 0,7 0,6 0,5 Admin Docs 0,4 Paramed 0,3 Support 0,2 0,1 1 2 3 4 5 6 450 Fatality Risk: Death rate per mile relative to rail (=1) 400 388 350 Distorting values 300 250 200 150 100 86 50 0,9 1 3,4 Bus Air/Rail Van 9,1 Car Bicycle Motorcycle Source: The Times Unit fraud: unclear definitions of units, especially when they contradict everyday usage 140 130 120 Output per worker 110 Output per hour worked 100 Output per person of working age 90 80 US France Germany BBC on house prices Research errors Questionnaire Studies • • • • • Using a questionnaire to work with problems that require other research techniques Not giving enough care to the development of the questionnaire and testing it Asking too many questions, thus making unreasonable demands on the respondents’ time Overlooking details of format, grammar, printing, and so on that can influence respondents’ first impression Not checking a sample of non-responding subjects for possible bias in the questionnaire. Interview Studies • Not adequately planning the interview or developing the interview guide • Not conducting sufficient practice interviews to acquire needed skills • Failing to establish safeguards against interviewer bias • Not making provisions for calculating the reliability of the interview data • Using language in the interview that the respondents won’t understand • Asking for information that the respondents cannot be expected to have Observational Studies • Not sufficiently training observers and thus obtaining unreliable data • Using an observation procedure that demands too much of the observer • Failing to safeguard against the observer’s disturbing or changing the situation being observed • Attempting to evaluate behavior that occurs so infrequently that reliable data cannot be obtained through observations Experimental Studies • • • • • Inadvertently or otherwise treating the experimental and control groups differently, thus leading to biased findings Using too few cases, leading to large sampling errors and insignificant results Failing to divide the main groups into subgroups in situations where subgroup analysis may produce worthwhile knowledge Matching the subjects in the experimental and control groups on criteria that have little to do with the variables being studied Attempting to match control and experimental groups on so many criteria that in the process you lose a large number of subjects who cannot be matched Content Analysis Studies Content Analysis Studies - finding the patterns within some type of material (e.g., texts, transcripts of conversations, videotapes of classroom interactions, etc) • Selecting content that is easily available but is not an unbiased sample • Selecting some content that is not really related to the research objectives • Failing to determine the reliability of the content-analysis procedures • Using classification categories that are not specific yet comprehensive Relationship (Correlation) Studies • • Assuming that a correlation between pieces of data is proof of a cause-and effect relationship • Trying to build a correlation study around conveniently available data instead of collecting the data needed to do a worthwhile study • • • Selecting variables for correlation that have been found non-productive in previous studies Using a sample in correlation research that differs on so many variables that comparisons of groups are not interpretable Failing to use appropriate disciplinary theory in selecting variables to study Using simple correlation techniques in studies where partial correlation or multiple correlation is needed to obtain a clear picture of the way the variables are operating Four sources of errors • Administrator (interviewer, programmer, facilitator, etc.) • Respondent • Instrument (e.g. the survey questionnaire) • Mode of data collection • The 5th source (in business studies): organization Administrator • • • • • • • • Rewording questions Accentuating certain words Skipping questions Recording wrong answers Affecting the respondent's behavior Incorrect data entry, coding, or programming Sample selection error – unrepresentative sample due to error in sample design Administrator falsifies questionnaires, responses or other data Respondent error: error resulting from some respondent action or inaction • Nonresponse error – statistical differences between a survey that includes only those who responded and a perfect survey that would also include those who failed to respond • Deliberate falsification – respondent may wish to appear “better” than he/she really is • • Acquiescence bias - respondents are agreeable rather than truthful • Extremity bias - respondents provide extreme responses to all questions • Carelessness - respondents do not read or complete survey carefully Auspices bias - response bias caused by respondent being influenced by the sponsor of the study Respondent error: error resulting from some respondent action or inaction • “Laziness” error - respondent gives an “average” answer • Proxy response error – taking answers from someone other than the respondent • Misunderstanding requirements error - respondent misunderstands the Non-response errors Non-response errors are all errors arising from: • Unit non-response, i.e. failure to obtain information from a pre-chosen sampling unit or population unit • Item non-response, i.e. failure to get a question or item in the data recording form response to a specific Instrument • • • • • The choice of research instrument is wrong The question is unclear, ambiguous or difficult to answer The list of possible answers suggested in the recording instrument is incomplete Requested information assumes a framework unfamiliar to the respondent The definitions used by the survey are different from those used by the respondent (e.g. how many part-time employees do you have?) Data collection • Errors in transmission of data from the field to the office • Errors in preparing the data in a suitable format for computerisation, e.g. during coding of qualitative answers • Errors during data analysis, e.g. imputation and weighting Organization • Inaccurate, outdated, incomplete data • Data is difficult to access • Data is unavailable for the unit of observation • Falsified data Errors in gathering research data • Not paying enough attention to establishing and maintaining rapport with the subjects. This often leads to refusals to cooperate or to a negative attitude that can reduce the validity of tests and other measures • • Weakening the research design by making changes merely for convenience • Failing to evaluate available measures completely before selecting those to use in the research. This often leads to the use of invalid or inappropriate measures • • Selecting measures to use in the research that have such low reliability that true differences are hidden Failing to explain the purposes of measures used in the research to those who will be administering the measure. If a research assistant thinks a test or measure is silly or worthless, subjects may easily sense his/her attitude, leading to poor cooperation Selecting measures to use in the research that the researcher is not qualified to administer and score. Errors in processing data • Failing to set up a systematic routine for scoring and recording data • Not recording details and variations in scoring procedures when scoring data and then being unable to remember what was done when called upon to describe the procedure in the report • Not checking the scoring for errors • Changing the scoring procedure during the process of scoring the research data Errors when using Standard Measuring Instruments • Failing to check the content validity of achievement measures in the situation in which the research is to be carried out. That is, an achievement measure may be valid in one situation but not in another • Failing to standardize or control the role of the person administering the measure in the data collection situation. That failure introduces variations in the amount and kind of assistance given the subjects during the test • Checking the overall validity and reliability of measures selected but failing to check validity and reliability of data • Using personality inventories and other self-reporting devices in situations in which the subject might be expected to fudge answers to create a better impression (e.g. self-assessment tests during job interviews) Errors when using Standard Measuring Instruments • Assuming that standard tests measure what they claim to measure without thoroughly evaluating available validity data • Attempting to use measures that the researcher is not sufficiently qualified to administer, analyze, or interpret • Failing to use the testing time well. For example, a researcher might wrongly administer long tests when shorter ones are available that meet the requirements of the research project equally well • Not carrying out a pretrial of the measuring instruments and procedures, thereby making mistakes when collecting the data, and introducing bias. Errors when using statistical tools • Selecting a statistical tool that is not appropriate or correct for the proposed analysis • Collecting research data and then trying to find a statistical technique that can be used to analyze them • Using only one statistical procedure when several can be applied to the data. This often leads to overlooking results that could have made a significant contribution to the research • Overstating the importance of small but statistically significant differences. • Thfya