Теоретическая грамматика

Теоретическая грамматика етическая грQ Qаммати Questions to lecture 1ка 1. Can categorial meanings be expressed lexically? The general notions of grammar which determine the structure of language and find their expression in inflection and other devices are generally called grammatical categories. A grammatical category is a unit of grammar based on a morphological opposition of grammatical meanings presented in grammatical forms. Meanings can be individual and categorial. The examples of individual meanings: book, green, word, tree, insect. The examples of categorial meaning: plurality, progression, degree, cause, condition, relation, dependence, manner. Individual and categorical meanings are expressed lexically. Categorial meanings, especially the most important ones, are also expressed grammatically – by types of words ( parts of speech),by their subtypes within types ( uncountable nouns, transitive verbs, relative adjectives),by their forms (forms of the past, plural, passive voice etc), by the structures of the phrase and the sentence, by syntactic positions and functions etc. Categorial meanings in morphology are expressed by means of word-forms. A system of word-forms of a word is its grammatical paradigm. Identical word-forms of different words of the same class represent a form-class: e.g. boys, trees phones, children, cats, loves, manners ,looks, oxen represent a form-class pf the plural of nouns. Contrastive form-classes - two, three or more- build oppositions which are called grammatical( morphological) categories. Оля, где ответ на вопрос? Не надо мне копировать все подряд, не думая, что Вы пишете. 2. What are the means of expressing meanings in grammar? Выделенное голубым - ответ на данный вопрос. The most general meanings rendered by language and expressed by systemic correlations of word-forms are interpreted in linguistics as grammatical meanings. Grammatical meanings are very abstract, very general. Therefore the grammatical form is not confined to an individual word, but unites a whole class of words, so that each word of the class expresses the corresponding grammatical meaning together with its individual, concrete semantics. Grammatical meanings ranged in oppositions and presented in grammatical forms build grammatical categories. Grammatical forms can be morphemes, synthetic forms, and grammatical word combinations, which are analytical forms. Synthetic forms unite both lexical and grammatical meanings in one word. In analytical forms there two or more words in which at least one element is an auxiliary. The auxiliary is a constant element of an analytical structure, which is devoid of lexical meaning (it renders grammatical meanings and is a purely grammatical element). Analytical structures must be differentiated from free syntactical word combinations. In free syntactical word combinations all the elements possess both lexical and grammatical meanings. Cf. waiter and waitress 3. What are the means of expressing meaning in morphology? The course of Modern English morphology consists of three main parts: 1) essentials of morphology, 2) the system of parts of speech, 3) the study of each part of speech in terms of its grammatical categories and syntactic functions. The chief notions of morphology include the grammatical category, the word and the morpheme. Grammatical category is a system of expressing a generalized grammatical meaning by means of paradigmatic correlation of grammatical forms (e. g. the category of number in nouns with the singular and plural forms). Categorial grammatical meanings are the most general meanings rendered by language and expressed by systematical correlations of word-forms (e. g. tense, aspect, voice, mood in the verb system). The paradigmatic correlations of grammatical forms in a category are exposed by the grammatical oppositions of various types (e. g. a binary privative opposition found in the category of number; a gradual opposition — in the degrees of comparison of adjectives, an equipotential opposition — in the three tense system). Word is the principal and basic unit of the language system, the largest on the morphological and the smallest on the syntactic level of linguistic analysis. Мне отсюда вычленять ответ? 4. What is a word-form? A word- form is the phonological or orthographic sound or appearance of a word that can be used to describe or identify something the inflected forms of a word can be represented by a stem and a list of inflections to be attached Words forms are the different ways a word can exist in the context of a language. Many words exist as nouns, verbs or adjectives and change when prefixes or suffixes are added. For example, the words beautify, beautiful and beautifully are the verb, adjective and adverb forms of the noun beauty, but they are not interchangeable when used in a sentence. Contextual clues are needed when determining which word form to use in cases of verb tense, such as jump or jumping and learn or learned. Understanding word forms is necessary in order to comprehend and communicate in a given language 5. What is a form-class? is a class made up of words that occur in a distinctive position in constructions and have certain formal features in common, as the form class noun inEnglish, made up of all words to which both the plural and possessive suffixes may be added. Categorial meanings in morphology are expressed by means of word-forms. A system of word-forms of a word is its grammatical paradigm. Identical word-forms of different words of the same class represent a form-class: e.g. boys, trees phones, children, cats, loves Это отклонение от нормы, manners ,looks, oxen represent a form-class pf the plural of nouns. Contrastive form-classes - two, three or more build oppositions which are called grammatical( morphological) categories. 6. Is the form-class the same as a part of speech? Part of speech is a systemic (taxonomiv lexico-grammatical class of words characterized by the categorial meaning (a more generalized lexical meaning ) typical of all the words of a given class, some specific word building and grammatical suffixes and prefixes and selective combinability with other parts of speech and some specific functioning in the sentence. The term form class is more concrete. It includes some words in a distinctive position in constructions and have certain formalfeatures in common. Я так и не поняла ответа на вопрос. 7. What is a grammatical category? Grammatical category is a set of syntactic features that: • express meanings from the same conceptual domain • occur in contrast to each other, and • are typically expressed in the same fashion. The term ‘grammatical category’ has been used to cover a wide variety of things, including what traditional grammars call "parts of speech." 8. What kind of oppositions is a grammatical category based on? More specifically the grammatical category is a system of expressing a generalized grammatical meaning by means of paradigmatic correlation of grammatical forms. The paradigmatic correlations of grammatical forms in a category are exposed by the so - called “grammatical oppositions”. The opposition (in the linguistic sense) may be defined as a generalized correlation of lingual forms by means of which a certain function is expressed. The correlated elements (members) of the opposition must possess two types of features: common features and differential features. Common features serve as the basis of contrast while differential features immediately express the function in question. A word may have several grammatical meanings. In order to make them clear and evident one is to arrange several different oppositions of various forms to the same form of this word. Let us take the verb (he) runs with a number of grammatical meanings: the 3rd person, singular, the present tense, the non-continuous aspect, the indicative mood, etc. Each of these meanings may be singled out in an opposition: (I) run / (he) runs (the 3rd person); (they) run / (he) runs (singular); (he) ran / (he) runs (the present tense); (he) is running / (he) runs (the non-continuous aspect); (They insisted that he) run / (he) runs (the indicative mood). In each of the pairs above the two members of the opposition are the forms of the same word to run identical in all respects but one: the very grammatical meaning we want to single out. These pairs are grammatical oppositions and each of the forms in a pair is an opposeme. Оля, четко назовите 3 типа оппозиций в грамматике! 9. What is the difference between unmarked and marked form-classes? In many areas of language study, markedness is a state in which one linguistic element is more distinctively identified (or marked) than another (unmarked) element. As Geoffrey Leech observes, "Where there is a contrast between two or more members of a category such as number, case, or tense, one of them is called 'marked' if it contains some extra affix, as opposed to the 'unmarked' member which does not". 10. What is the invariant? There are two fundamental types of relations between lingual units: paradigmatic and syntagmatic. Syntagmatic relations imply a liner combination of units of the same level. Lingual units form various lingual strings or sequences: sounds within morphemes, words within phrases etc. The other type of relations is called paradigmatic. The term is derived from the word paradigm and denotes the relations between elements in paradigms in the system of language. Classical grammatical paradigms are those making up grammatical categories of words or morphological categories. For example, the category of number of the noun (tooth-teeth) , the category of tense of the verb etc. Paradigm is a system of variants of the same unit which is called the invariant. А что же есть инвариант? 11. Under what conditions can the meaning of a word-form be modified? The meaning of a word-form may sometimes deviate from the standard meaning (invariant), peculiar to its form-class due to the influence of the lexical meaning of the word, lexical or syntactic context. E.g. the invariant of the form has dinner is the expression of the present time action. In the context He has dinner with his father at 6 tomorrow under the influence of the specific lexical context (the presence of the word tomorrow) the form denotes a future action. Or in the sequence “What is the child doing?” “ The little devil is jumping over the fence” the form of the Continuous which as invariant is supposed to express an uninterrupted progressive action starts to express a series of repeated point actions due to the lexical character of the verb to jump. Such modifications of the meaning of the grammatical word-form are called dependent (lexically dependent or syntactically dependent), modified or secondary meanings. Не надо копировать мне куски лекции. Примеры приводим СВОИ!