Стратегии речевого поведения в англоязычной среде

Þ.Á. ÊÓÇÜÌÅÍÊÎÂÀ Стратегии речевого поведения в англоязычной среде Ëåêöèè 1–4 Ìîñêâà Ïåäàãîãè÷åñêèé óíèâåðñèòåò «Ïåðâîå ñåíòÿáðÿ» 2006 Ó÷åáíûé ïëàí êóðñà ¹ áð. Þëèÿ Áîðèñîâíà Êóçüìåíêîâà Ìàòåðèàëû êóðñà «Ñòðàòåãèè ðå÷åâîãî ïîâåäåíèÿ â àíãëîÿçû÷íîé ñðåäå». Ëåêöèè 1–4. Ì. : Ïåäàãîãè÷åñêèé óíèâåðñèòåò «Ïåðâîå ñåíòÿáðÿ», 2006. 48 ñ. Ó÷åáíî-ìåòîäè÷åñêîå ïîñîáèå Ðåäàêòîð Þ.Á. Êóçüìåíêîâà Ê î ì ï ü þ ò å ð í à ÿ â å ð ñ ò ê à Ä.Â. Êàðäàíîâñêàÿ Ïîäïèñàíî â ïå÷àòü 12.02.2006. Ôîðìàò 60õ90/16. Ãàðíèòóðà «TimesET». Ïå÷àòü îôñåòíàÿ. Ïå÷. ë. 3,0. Óñë. ïå÷. ë. 5,2. Òèðàæ ýêç. Çàêàç ¹ Ïåäàãîãè÷åñêèé óíèâåðñèòåò «Ïåðâîå ñåíòÿáðÿ», óë. Êèåâñêàÿ, ä. 24, Ìîñêâà, 121165 http://edu.1september.ru  Þ.Á. Êóçüìåíêîâà, 2006  Ïåäàãîãè÷åñêèé óíèâåðñèòåò «Ïåðâîå ñåíòÿáðÿ», 2006 Íàçâàíèå ëåêöèè 1 Ëåêöèÿ 1. Ïðåäïîñûëêè âûäåëåíèÿ ñòðàòåãèé ðå÷åâîãî ïîâåäåíèÿ 1 Ëåêöèÿ 2. Ñòðàòåãèè äèñòàíöèðîâàíèÿ 1 Ëåêöèÿ 3. Ñòðàòåãèè íàìåêà. Êîíòðîëüíàÿ ðàáîòà 1 1 Ëåêöèÿ 4. Ñòðàòåãèè óêëîíåíèÿ 2 Ëåêöèÿ 5. Ñìÿã÷åíèå ïîñðåäñòâîì âîïðîñîâ. Êîíòðîëüíàÿ ðàáîòà 2 2 Ëåêöèÿ 6. Ñòðàòåãèè ïîääåðæêè ñîáåñåäíèêà 2 Ëåêöèÿ 7. Ñòðàòåãèè ïîääåðæàíèÿ êîíòàêòà 2 Ëåêöèÿ 8. Íåêîòîðûå îñîáåííîñòè òðàêòîâêè íà÷àëà è çàâåðøåíèÿ áåñåäû. Èòîãîâàÿ ðàáîòà Ëåêöèÿ 1. Ïðåäïîñûëêè âûäåëåíèÿ ñòðàòåãèé ðå÷åâîãî ïîâåäåíèÿ  äàííîé ëåêöèè ìû ðàññìîòðèì îñíîâíûå îñîáåííîñòè àíãëîÿçû÷íîé êîììóíèêàöèè (â ñîïîñòàâëåíèè ñ ðóññêîÿçû÷íîé), îïðåäåëèì ïðè÷èíû òðóäíîñòåé, âîçíèêàþùèõ ïðè îáùåíèè ðîññèÿí ñ èõ àíãëîãîâîðÿùèìè ñîáåñåäíèêàìè, è íàìåòèì ïóòè èõ ïðåîäîëåíèÿ ñ öåëüþ îáåñïå÷åíèÿ ýôôåêòèâíîãî âçàèìîäåéñòâèÿ.  êîíòåêñòå ïîñòàâëåííûõ íàìè öåëåé âàæíî, ÷òî ñóùåñòâåííûå îòëè÷èÿ ðå÷åâîãî ïîâåäåíèÿ áðèòàíöåâ è àìåðèêàíöåâ îò ïðèâû÷íîãî äëÿ ðîññèÿí ñâÿçàíû ñ ðàñõîæäåíèÿìè â òðàêòîâêå âåæëèâîñòè. Âåæëèâîå îáùåíèå ñîîòíîñèòñÿ ñ âûïîëíåíèåì ïðèíÿòûõ â êîíêðåòíîì îáùåñòâå ñîöèàëüíûõ óñòàíîâîê, âàðüèðóþùèõñÿ îò êóëüòóðû ê êóëüòóðå. Ãëàäêîìó òå÷åíèþ áåñåäû è âçàèìîïîíèìàíèþ ñïîñîáñòâóåò èõ ñîâïàäåíèå, à èõ îòñóòñòâèå âëå÷åò çà ñîáîé ïðèïèñûâàíèå íîðì, ïðèíÿòûõ â ðîäíîé êóëüòóðå. Ïðè ýòîì âçàèìíîå íåïîíèìàíèå èëè êîíôëèêòíàÿ ñèòóàöèÿ íåðåäêî èìåþò åäèíûé èñòî÷íèê – îòñóòñòâèå çíàíèé î òîì, ÷òî ñ÷èòàåòñÿ íîðìîé.  îñíîâå ýòèõ íîðì ëåæèò ñâîä íåïèñàíûõ ïðàâèë (î òîì, ÷òî ïðèëè÷íî èëè íåïðèëè÷íî, ïðèíÿòî èëè íåïðèíÿòî), î÷åâèä- 4 Ëåêöèÿ ¹ 1 íûõ è ïîíÿòíûõ äëÿ ëþáîãî íîñèòåëÿ êóëüòóðû, íî ÷àñòî ïðèâîäÿùèõ â íåäîóìåíèå «íåïîñâÿùåííûõ», âîñïèòàííûõ â èíûõ òðàäèöèÿõ. Ìíîãèì, ïðåêðàñíî âëàäåþùèì àíãëèéñêèì ÿçûêîì ðîññèÿíàì, êîìó äîâîäèëîñü îáùàòüñÿ ñ áðèòàíöàìè èëè àìåðèêàíöàìè, çíàêîìî ÷óâñòâî íåêîé íåóäîâëåòâîðåííîñòè, âîçíèêàþùåé ëèáî íåïîñðåäñòâåííî â ïðîöåññå áåñåäû, ëèáî ïî åå îêîí÷àíèè. Âðîäå áû âñå øëî ãëàäêî, îäíàêî ïîëíîãî âçàèìîïîíèìàíèÿ ïî÷åìó-òî íå áûëî, – “no proper dialogue, no exchange of thought”, êàê ãîâîðèë îäèí èç ëèòåðàòóðíûõ ãåðîåâ À. Ìèëíà. Àíàëèç ïðè÷èí òàêîãî ðîäà ðàçî÷àðîâàíèé ñâèäåòåëüñòâóåò î òîì, ÷òî äëÿ ïîëíîöåííîãî îáùåíèÿ òðåáóåòñÿ, ñ îäíîé ñòîðîíû, óìåíèå àäåêâàòíî èíòåðïðåòèðîâàòü ðå÷åâîå ïîâåäåíèå ïàðòíåðà, à ñ äðóãîé – óìåíèå ñäåëàòü ñâîè ìûñëè äîñòóïíûìè äëÿ ïîíèìàíèÿ íîñèòåëÿ äðóãîé êóëüòóðû, ñëîâåñíî èõ îôîðìëÿÿ â ñîîòâåòñòâèè ñ ïðèâû÷íûìè äëÿ íåãî íîðìàìè. Îñíîâíàÿ òðóäíîñòü èíòåðïðåòàöèè èíîÿçû÷íîãî îáùåíèÿ ñîñòîèò â ðàñïîçíàâàíèè ýòèõ íåïèñàíûõ ïðàâèë, âåäü, îáùàÿñü, âåæëèâûé ÷åëîâåê ÷àñòî áûâàåò äâîéñòâåíåí: íà ñëîâàõ îäíî, à íà äåëå – äðóãîå. Ââèäó ñóùåñòâóþùèõ ðàçëè÷èé â ìèðîâîñïðèÿòèè ðàçâèòü ñïîñîáíîñòü ðàñøèôðîâûâàòü ñîäåðæàíèå íàìåðåíèé àíãëîãîâîðÿùèõ ñîáåñåäíèêîâ äëÿ ðîññèÿíèíà êðàéíå ñëîæíî. È, ÷òîáû ñäåëàòü ýòó çàäà÷ó ðåàëüíî âûïîëíèìîé, ïðåæäå âñåãî ñëåäóåò ðàçîáðàòüñÿ, â ÷åì æå ïðè÷èíû äâîéñòâåííîñòè, êîòîðàÿ ïðèâîäèò ê ðàñõîæäåíèþ ìåæäó òåì, ÷òî ãîâîðèòñÿ, è òåì, ÷òî çà ýòèì ñòîèò. Äëÿ òîãî ÷òîáû ÷åòêî ïðåäñòàâëÿòü, ÷åì ïîäõîä ðîññèÿíèíà ê îáùåíèþ îòëè÷àåòñÿ îò ðàñïðîñòðàíåííîãî ñðåäè áðèòàíöåâ è àìåðèêàíöåâ, ïîòðåáóþòñÿ ôîíîâûå çíàíèÿ èç îáëàñòè êóëüòóðû – ðîäíîé è èíîÿçû÷íîé. Ïîïûòàåìñÿ îáîçíà÷èòü íàèáîëåå õàðàêòåðíûå ÷åðòû ðóññêî- è àíãëîÿçû÷íîãî îáùåíèÿ â êîíòåêñòå âåæëèâîñòè. Èñòîðè÷åñêè â ðóññêîé êîììóíèêàòèâíîé êóëüòóðå âåæëèâîñòü îòíîñèëàñü ê ñôåðå ìîðàëüíî-ýòè÷åñêîé: ÷åëîâåêà, êàê ïðàâèëî, ïðèíèìàëè òàêèì, êàêîâ îí åñòü (ïðè íåîáõîäèìîñòè ñî÷óâñòâîâàëè, êðèòèêîâàëè, ïîìîãàëè èñïðàâèòüñÿ); ñòðåìëåíèå êàçàòüñÿ ëó÷øå îáû÷íî òðàêòîâàëîñü íåãàòèâíî – êàê ëèöåìåðèå. Äëÿ «ïîääåðæàíèÿ ñâîåãî ëèöà» (êàê âûðàæàþòñÿ ñîâðåìåííûå ó÷¸íûå), à òî÷íåå – ñàìîóâàæåíèÿ (÷òî áîëåå ïðèâû÷íî â òåðìèíàõ îòå÷åñòâåííîé êóëüòóðû) ðóññêîìó ÷åëîâåêó íåäîñòàòî÷íî áûëî îäíèõ òîëüêî êðàñèâûõ ñëîâ, ïðèíÿòî áûëî «ïî äåëàì ñóäèòü», è ïî ýòîé ïðè÷èíå ëþáåçíîñòü íåðåäêî ðàññìàòðèâàëè êàê íåèñêðåííîñòü, Ïðåäïîñûëêè âûäåëåíèÿ ñòðàòåãèé ðå÷åâîãî ïîâåäåíèÿ 5 ïóñòóþ òðàòó âðåìåíè, è îñîáîãî çíà÷åíèÿ åé íå ïðèäàâàëè. Âåæëèâîñòü â ðóññêîé òðàäèöèè íåìûñëèìà áåç òàêèõ ñîñòàâëÿþùèõ, êàê èíòóèöèÿ è òàêòè÷íîñòü, ó÷òèâîñòü è ó÷àñòëèâîñòü, ñïîíòàííîñòü âûðàæåíèÿ ýìîöèé è íåïîääåëüíûé èíòåðåñ, à ñàìî ïîíÿòèå îáùåíèå – îäíî èç êëþ÷åâûõ. Ñâîéñòâåííîå áðèòàíöàì è àìåðèêàíöàì ñòðåìëåíèå óäåðæèâàòü ðàçãîâîð â çàðàíåå ïðåäóñìîòðåííûõ ãðàíèöàõ, êîíòðîëèðóåìûõ ñ ïîçèöèé ðàññóäî÷íîñòè, íå ïîëüçóåòñÿ ïîïóëÿðíîñòüþ â Ðîññèè, ãäå âûñîêî öåíèòñÿ îáùèòåëüíîñòü, îñíîâàííàÿ íà èñêðåííåì ÷åëîâå÷åñêîì ðàñïîëîæåíèè è âíèìàíèè ê ñîáåñåäíèêó. Íåäàðîì âïå÷àòëåíèå îò ïðåáûâàíèÿ â ãîñòÿõ íåðåäêî îöåíèâàåòñÿ â òåðìèíàõ îáùåíèÿ, è íåóäîâëåòâîðåíèå âûðàæàåòñÿ ñëîâàìè ìû ïîáåñåäîâàëè ÷èñòî ôîðìàëüíî. Âûñîêàÿ ñòåïåíü îòêðîâåííîñòè ðóññêèõ ïðîÿâëÿåòñÿ â ðàñïðîñòðàíåííîé ôîðìå çàäóøåâíûõ ðàçãîâîðîâ è ñâèäåòåëüñòâóåò î ïðèîðèòåòíîñòè êîíòàêòîâ, îñíîâàííûõ íà âçàèìíîì äîâåðèè è ñâîáîäíîì âûðàæåíèè ëè÷íîãî îòíîøåíèÿ.  ñâÿçè ñ òðàäèöèîííûì âíèìàíèåì ê ñóùíîñòíûì ìîìåíòàì (â îêðóæàþùåì ìèðå è â ëþäÿõ) äëÿ ðîññèÿí õàðàêòåðíû ñìåùåíèå àêöåíòà íà èíôîðìàòèâíóþ ñòîðîíó êîììóíèêàöèè è èíäèâèäóàëüíûé ïîäõîä, ïðè êîòîðîì ïðàâèëà êîììóíèêàòèâíîãî ïîâåäåíèÿ çàâèñÿò îò «÷åëîâå÷åñêîãî ôàêòîðà» è êîíòåêñòà ñèòóàöèè.  öåëîì ðîññèÿíå ñêëîííû ê ïðÿìîìó âûðàæåíèþ îöåíêè, ê êðèòè÷åñêèì âûñêàçûâàíèÿì, ñêóïû íà êîìïëèìåíòû è ïîõâàëó. Åñòåñòâåííîñòü, ÿâëÿþùàÿñÿ äîìèíàíòîé ðóññêîÿçû÷íîãî îáùåíèÿ, îïðåäåëÿåò òàêèå åãî ÷åðòû, êàê îäíîçíà÷íîñòü, ïðÿìîëèíåéíîñòü è ýìîöèîíàëüíîñòü. Äëÿ àíãëîÿçû÷íîãî îáùåíèÿ òàêóþ äîìèíàíòó ìîæíî îáîçíà÷èòü êàê êîíâåíöèîíàëüíîñòü, èëè ðèòóàëèçîâàííîñòü, ÷òî îòðàæàåò ïðàãìàòè÷åñêèå óñòàíîâêè èíäèâèäóàëèñòà, îïèðàþùèåñÿ íà ïðèíöèï íåâìåøàòåëüñòâà: mind your own business. Ýòîò ïðèíöèï ñîîòíîñèòñÿ ñ êëþ÷åâûì äëÿ àíãëî-àìåðèêàíñêîé òðàäèöèè ïîíÿòèåì privacy, êîòîðûì ïîä÷åðêèâàåòñÿ æåëàòåëüíîñòü èçîëÿöèè îò îêðóæàþùèõ è âíåøíåãî ìèðà è ñâîáîäû íåâîçáðàíÿåìî çàíèìàòüñÿ ñâîèì äåëîì. Áàçèðóÿñü íà ïðèîðèòåòå ëè÷íûõ èíòåðåñîâ è ïðàâå ïîëíîãî ëè÷íîãî êîíòðîëÿ íàä íèìè, çàêîíû ñîáëþäåíèÿ privacy ïðåäïîëàãàþò ñàìîñòîÿòåëüíîñòü è ñàìîäîñòàòî÷íîñòü èíäèâèäóóìà è, ñîîòâåòñòâåííî, ñâîáîäó, âûðàæàþùóþñÿ â åãî âíåøíåé íåçàâèñèìîñòè îò îêðóæàþùèõ è â íåäîïóñòèìîñòè ñòîðîííåãî âìåøàòåëüñòâà â ëè÷íóþ æèçíü êàê ýòó åãî ñâîáîäó îãðàíè÷èâàþùåãî. Ñîãëàñíî òðàêòîâêå ñëîâîñî÷åòàíèÿ to have privacy, äàííîé À. Âåæáèöêîé, “it is assumed that every individual would want… to have a little wall around him/her at least part of the time, and that is 6 Ëåêöèÿ ¹ 1 perfectly natural, and very important”. Ïðèìå÷àòåëüíî, ÷òî ñòðåìëåíèå èçîëèðîâàòüñÿ ïîíÿòíî è åñòåñòâåííî è ïðèçíàåòñÿ ñâîåãî ðîäà óíèâåðñàëüíûì. Îäíàêî èìåííî ýòà ìàëåíüêàÿ ñòåíà ñòàíîâèòñÿ íåïðåîäîëèìîé ïðåãðàäîé ïðè îáùåíèè ñ àíãëîÿçû÷íûìè ñîáåñåäíèêàìè, êîòîðûå âîçäâèãàþò íåâèäèìûå ãëàçîì, íî âåñüìà îùóòèìûå áàðüåðû äëÿ ðîññèÿí, íå ïðèâûêøèõ ïîñòîÿííî çàáîòèòüñÿ î ñîõðàííîñòè privacy – ñâîåé ñîáñòâåííîé è îêðóæàþùèõ (ïîñêîëüêó ýãîèçì íå ÿâëÿåòñÿ äîìèíàíòîé ðóññêîãî íàöèîíàëüíîãî õàðàêòåðà). Äàííóþ ÷åðòó ìèðîâîñïðèÿòèÿ, ïðåëîìèâøóþñÿ â ñòåðåîòèïíûõ ïðåäñòàâëåíèÿõ î áðèòàíñêîé õîëîäíîñòè è ñäåðæàííîñòè, ìîæíî óñëîâíî îáîçíà÷èòü êàê äèñòàíöèðîâàííîñòü. Äèñòàíöèðîâàííîñòü îñíîâàíà íà ñèëüíî ðàçâèòîì îùóùåíèè íåïðèêîñíîâåííîñòè ÷àñòíîé ñîáñòâåííîñòè è íåîáõîäèìîñòè çàùèòû íåçàâèñèìîñòè èíäèâèäóóìà êàê íåïðåìåííîãî óñëîâèÿ åãî ðàçâèòèÿ. Áðèòàíöû è àìåðèêàíöû, îðèåíòèðîâàííûå íà ìàòåðèàëüíîå ðàçâèòèå, îáíàðóæèâàþò òåíäåíöèþ ê ñîñðåäîòî÷åííîñòè è çàìêíóòîñòè íà ýãîèñòè÷åñêèõ èíòåðåñàõ, ÷òî â ïðîåêöèè íà ìåæëè÷íîñòíîå âçàèìîäåéñòâèå îòðàæàåòñÿ â ñòðåìëåíèè êîíêðåòíûõ èíäèâèäóóìîâ ê ðàñøèðåíèþ, íàïðèìåð, ëè÷íîé òåððèòîðèè, ñôåðû âëèÿíèÿ. Î÷åâèäíî, ÷òî ìíîæåñòâåííîñòü àíàëîãè÷íûõ ýêñïàíñèâíûõ óñòðåìëåíèé âûíóæäàåò ê ïîèñêó êîìïðîìèññà – ÷òîáû èçáåæàòü ñòîëêíîâåíèÿ èíòåðåñîâ è ñîõðàíèòü ñâîè ïîçèöèè. Ëîãè÷åñêèì ñëåäñòâèåì ýòîãî ÿâëÿåòñÿ òàêæå íåîáõîäèìîñòü ìàíèïóëèðîâàíèÿ (íà ðàçíûõ óðîâíÿõ, âêëþ÷àÿ ðå÷åâîé). Äëÿ èíäèâèäóàëèñòà õàðàêòåðíî ñòðåìëåíèå óïðàâëÿòü ñâîèì îêðóæåíèåì ïîñðåäñòâîì âîçäåéñòâèÿ íà íåãî. Îáùàÿ íàïðàâëåííîñòü òàêîé «ìàíèïóëÿòèâíîé» êîììóíèêàöèè çàêëþ÷àåòñÿ â òîì, ÷òîáû, ãèáêî ðåàãèðóÿ íà ðåïëèêè ñîáåñåäíèêà, èçáåãàòü ïðÿìîé êîíôðîíòàöèè. (Çàìåòèì â ñêîáêàõ, ÷òî ýòî î÷åâèäíîå ïðîòèâîðå÷èå ñ äåêëàðèðóåìûì ïðèíöèïîì íåâìåøàòåëüñòâà ÿâëÿåò ïðèìåð äâîéíûõ ñòàíäàðòîâ: îáîðîòíàÿ, íåðåäêî îñòàâëÿåìàÿ áåç âíèìàíèÿ, ñòîðîíà ìàíèïóëÿòèâíîãî ïîäõîäà – íå ÷òî èíîå êàê áåçðàçëè÷èå, îïèðàþùååñÿ íà «ýãîöåíòðèðîâàííîñòü» âíèìàíèÿ.)  îñíîâå (ïðàãìàòè÷åñêîãî) ñîäåðæàíèÿ íàìåðåíèé, êàê ïðè âûðàæåíèè ïîáóæäåíèé, òàê è ýìîöèé, ëåæèò ýãîöåíòðè÷åñêèé ïðèíöèï âîëåèçúÿâëåíèÿ «ÿ õî÷ó», îòêðîâåííîå ïðîÿâëåíèå êîòîðîãî, åñòåñòâåííî, íå âõîäèò â îáùåïðèíÿòûå íîðìû.  ñâÿçè ñ ýòèì ïðàâèëà ïðèëè÷èÿ è «ýòèêåòíîé» âåæëèâîñòè íà óðîâíå ðå÷è ïðèçâàíû âñåìåðíî ñïîñîáñòâîâàòü ñìÿã÷åíèþ íàñèëüñòâåííîãî õàðàêòåðà ñîîòâåòñòâóþùèõ âûñêàçûâàíèé, ñîîáùàÿ äèðåêòèâàì îòòåíîê íåîäíîçíà÷íîñòè, ñîçäàâàÿ âèäèìîñòü âîçìîæíîãî âûáîðà, Ïðåäïîñûëêè âûäåëåíèÿ ñòðàòåãèé ðå÷åâîãî ïîâåäåíèÿ 7 à òàêæå ðåãóëèðóÿ ýìîöèîíàëüíûé íàñòðîé â äèàïàçîíå îò «êîììóíèêàòèâíîãî ïåññèìèçìà» äî «êîììóíèêàòèâíîãî îïòèìèçìà». Ïðàâèëà âåæëèâîñòè, îðèåíòèðîâàííûå íà ñîáëþäåíèå ïðèëè÷èé, ïðè ýòîì òðàêòóþòñÿ ñ ïîçèöèé ðàöèîíàëüíîé ïîëåçíîñòè êàê ñïîñîáñòâóþùèå óäîâëåòâîðåíèþ ñîáñòâåííûõ æåëàíèé è æåëàíèé äðóãîãî ëèöà. Òàêèì îáðàçîì îáåñïå÷èâàåòñÿ âñåìåðíàÿ çàùèòà àâòîíîìèè ëè÷íîñòè, åå ïðàâ è ñâîáîä, ñ îäíîé ñòîðîíû, è çàáîòà î ïîääåðæàíèè ïîëîæèòåëüíîãî èìèäæà, êàê ñâîåãî ñîáñòâåííîãî, òàê è îêðóæàþùèõ, – ñ äðóãîé. ×òîáû äîñòèæåíèå ïîñòàâëåííîé öåëè – óáåäèòü àäðåñàòà èëè çàñòàâèòü åãî èçìåíèòü ñâîþ òî÷êó çðåíèÿ â ðåçóëüòàòå âçàèìîäåéñòâèÿ – íå âñòóïàëî â ïðîòèâîðå÷èå ñ íåîáõîäèìîñòüþ îäîáðåíèÿ ñî ñòîðîíû ñîáåñåäíèêîâ, áðèòàíöû è àìåðèêàíöû øèðîêî îáðàùàþòñÿ ê ðàçëè÷íûì ñòðàòåãèÿì è òàêòèêàì. Âàæíî ïðè ýòîì óêàçàòü, ÷òî íåîáõîäèìîñòü ïîääåðæèâàòü áåñêîíôëèêòíóþ àòìîñôåðó áåñåäû, ïîêàçàòü ñåáÿ â âûãîäíîì ñâåòå è çàñëóæèòü ïîëîæèòåëüíóþ îöåíêó äðóãèõ ó÷àñòíèêîâ íåðåäêî ñ÷èòàåòñÿ íåïðåìåííûì óñëîâèåì ýôôåêòèâíîé êîììóíèêàöèè. Ýòî ïîçâîëÿåò «ñîõðàíèòü ëèöî» – ïîëîæèòåëüíûé îáðàç ñàìîãî ñåáÿ, ñîçäàâàåìûé ÷åëîâåêîì è îäîáðèòåëüíî âîñïðèíèìàåìûé îêðóæàþùèìè. Íå óäèâèòåëüíî, ÷òî ýòî øèðîêî ðàñïðîñòðàíåííîå íà Âîñòîêå ïîíÿòèå õîðîøî ïðèæèëîñü íà Çàïàäå. Îäíàêî äëÿ ðîññèÿí ïîèñê îäîáðåíèÿ è íåîáõîäèìîñòü ïîääåðæèâàòü áåñêîíôëèêòíóþ àòìîñôåðó îòíþäü íå ÿâëÿåòñÿ ãëàâíûì. Óñòàíîâëåíèå ìåæëè÷íîñòíûõ îòíîøåíèé ìîæåò áûòü îäíîé èç öåëåé îáùåíèÿ, íî â ýòè öåëè ìîæåò â ðàâíîé ìåðå âõîäèòü è æåëàíèå îêàçàòü íåïîñðåäñòâåííîå êîììóíèêàòèâíîå âîçäåéñòâèå íà àäðåñàòà, íàìåðåíèå óáåäèòü åãî ïðèíÿòü èíóþ òî÷êó çðåíèÿ. Ñ äðóãîé ñòîðîíû, â îñíîâå áåñåäû ìîæåò ëåæàòü íåïîääåëüíûé èíòåðåñ ê ëþäÿì, à òàêæå ïîòðåáíîñòü ñàìîðåàëèçîâàòüñÿ èëè â êîíöå êîíöîâ ïðîñòî èçëèòü äóøó. Äëÿ òðàäèöèé ðóññêîé êóëüòóðû îáðàùåíèå ê «ñòðàòåãè÷åñêîìó» îáùåíèþ (çà èñêëþ÷åíèåì ýòèêåòíûõ òðåáîâàíèé) â öåëîì íå õàðàêòåðíî. È äåéñòâèòåëüíî, âûðàæàÿ, íàïðèìåð, ñî÷óâñòâèå, ðîññèÿíèí, ðóêîâîäñòâóÿñü â ïåðâóþ î÷åðåäü ÷óâñòâîì òàêòà è èíòóèöèåé, âðÿä ëè áóäåò ïðèäåðæèâàòüñÿ êàêîé-òî çàðàíåå íàìå÷åííîé ëèíèè ïîâåäåíèÿ, ïîñêîëüêó ðàññóäî÷íîñòü íåñîâìåñòèìà ñ ñåðäå÷íîñòüþ.  îòñóòñòâèå ñîöèàëüíîé ïðèîðèòåòíîñòè ëè÷íîñòè ðàçëè÷íûå ïðîÿâëåíèÿ ýãîèçìà ëèáî ïîðèöàþòñÿ, ëèáî âûðàæàþòñÿ îòêðîâåííî, ïîñêîëüêó ïîïûòêè èõ ñêðûòü, êàê ïðàâèëî, «ïðî÷èòûâàþòñÿ». Ýãîöåíòðèðîâàííàÿ óñòàíîâêà «ÿ õî÷ó» â áîëüøèíñòâå ñèòóàöèé çàìåíÿåòñÿ ìîðàëüíî-ýòè÷åñêîé «òàê 8 Ëåêöèÿ ¹ 1 íàäî», àïåëëèðóþùåé ê âûñîêîðàçâèòîìó ÷óâñòâó äîëãà è îòâåòñòâåííîñòè, ÷òî äåëàåò äîïóñòèìûìè ïðèêàç, ïîæåëàíèå, ïðîñüáó. Ñòðåìëåíèå ê äîñòèæåíèþ êîìïðîìèññà ñ ñîáåñåäíèêîì ðàäè ïîääåðæàíèÿ ïñèõîëîãè÷åñêîãî ðàâíîâåñèÿ è óêðåïëåíèÿ ìåæëè÷íîñòíûõ êîíòàêòîâ ÿâëÿåòñÿ ñòèìóëîì äëÿ ãîâîðÿùèõ è îáóñëîâëèâàåò âûñîêóþ ñòåïåíü ôîðìàëèçîâàííîñòè îáùåíèÿ, êîòîðàÿ îïðåäåëÿåò ñïåöèôèêó ÷åëîâå÷åñêèõ âçàèìîîòíîøåíèé ïðàêòè÷åñêè íà âñåõ óðîâíÿõ è â ñàìûõ ðàçíûõ êîììóíèêàòèâíûõ ñèòóàöèÿõ. Õàðàêòåðíî, ÷òî áðèòàíöû (â ìåíüøåé ñòåïåíè àìåðèêàíöû) ïðè ðåøåíèè êîíêðåòíûõ ðå÷åâûõ çàäà÷ âî ãëàâó óãëà ñòàâÿò ïîèñê òî÷åê ñîïðèêîñíîâåíèÿ. Ïðîöåññ îáùåíèÿ äëÿ íèõ íåðåäêî ïðåâðàùàåòñÿ â èñïîëüçîâàíèå ÿçûêà â åãî êîíòàêòîóñòàíàâëèâàþùåé (ôàòè÷åñêîé) ôóíêöèè – äëÿ ôîðìàëüíîãî ïîääåðæàíèÿ ñàìîãî ðàçãîâîðà è ñîöèàëüíûõ îòíîøåíèé (ñð. ïðèâåðæåííîñòü ê small talk). Ñîîòâåòñòâåííî, îáìåí èíôîðìàöèåé íåðåäêî îòñòóïàåò íà âòîðîé ïëàí, à ðåçóëüòàò, äîñòèãíóòûé íà îñíîâå óñòóïîê è âçàèìîâûãîäíîãî ñîãëàøåíèÿ, èìååò îòíîñèòåëüíî ìåíüøóþ çíà÷èìîñòü. Ýòèì îáúÿñíÿåòñÿ ðàñõîæäåíèå ìåæäó ôîðìîé è ñîäåðæàíèåì, ïîâûøåííîå âíèìàíèå ê ôîðìàëüíîé ñòîðîíå îáùåíèÿ çà÷àñòóþ çàòåìíÿåò áîëåå ñóùåñòâåííóþ (îñîáåííî â ãëàçàõ ðîññèÿí) – èíôîðìàòèâíóþ. Äâîéñòâåííîñòü áûòîâîãî àíãëîÿçû÷íîãî ïîâåäåíèÿ îáíàðóæèâàåòñÿ â ñêëîííîñòè ê ìíîãîñëîâèþ ïðè íåâûñîêîé èíôîðìàòèâíîñòè, â òåíäåíöèè ê ìíîãîêðàòíîìó èñïîëüçîâàíèþ ýêñïðåññèâíî-îöåíî÷íûõ ñðåäñòâ, ïðèçâàííûõ ñâèäåòåëüñòâîâàòü î ðèòóàëüíîì âíèìàíèè ê ñîáåñåäíèêó ïðè íåéòðàëüíîì (à ÷àùå – ôîðìàëüíî-áåçðàçëè÷íîì) ê íåìó îòíîøåíèè, ñ îäíîé ñòîðîíû, à ñ äðóãîé – â òåíäåíöèè ñêðûâàòü ñîáñòâåííûå (èñòèííûå) ÷óâñòâà. Ýòà âíóòðåííÿÿ îòñòðàíåííîñòü ïðè âíåøíåé äåìîíñòðàöèè ýìîöèé îïðåäåëÿåòñÿ ïðàãìàòè÷åñêîé óñòàíîâêîé íà ýìîòèâíîñòü – «âûðàæåíèå ýìîöèé â ñòðàòåãè÷åñêèõ öåëÿõ» (Ëàðèíà, 2003), ïîñêîëüêó ïðåäïîëàãàåòñÿ, ÷òî ÷åëîâåê ìîæåò ñîçíàòåëüíî óïðàâëÿòü íå òîëüêî õîäîì áåñåäû, íî è ñâîèìè ýìîöèÿìè. Àêöåíò íà ôîðìå îáóñëîâëèâàåò è æåñòêóþ ðåãëàìåíòàöèþ âñåõ ñôåð àíãëîÿçû÷íîãî îáùåíèÿ (â òîì ÷èñëå åãî òåìàòèêó), îïðåäåëÿÿ ñòðóêòóðíóþ îðãàíèçàöèþ è ÷åòêèå ïðàâèëà âçàèìîîòíîøåíèé ó÷àñòíèêîâ êîììóíèêàöèè. Íàáëþäàåìîå â ÑØÀ è Âåëèêîáðèòàíèè óñèëåíèå òåíäåíöèè ê äåìîêðàòè÷íîñòè, îòðàæàþùåå îáùóþ óñòàíîâêó íà ñîöèàëüíîå ðàâåíñòâî, ïðîÿâëÿåòñÿ â ðàñïðîñòðàíåíèè óíèôèöèðîâàííîãî ïîäõîäà ê îáùåíèþ íåçàâèñèìî îò ñîöèàëüíîãî ñòàòóñà è ñîöèàëüíûõ Ïðåäïîñûëêè âûäåëåíèÿ ñòðàòåãèé ðå÷åâîãî ïîâåäåíèÿ 9 îòíîøåíèé.  ðåçóëüòàòå íîðìîé ÿâëÿåòñÿ íåôîðìàëüíîñòü, ëèøü âíåøíå ñâèäåòåëüñòâóþùàÿ î áëèçîñòè âçàèìîîòíîøåíèé, íà ôîíå âåñüìà ïîâåðõíîñòíîãî âíèìàíèÿ êàê ê ñîäåðæàòåëüíûì, òàê è ê ìåæëè÷íîñòíûì àñïåêòàì. Ïî êîíòðàñòó, â Ðîññèè äèôôåðåíöèðîâàííîå èñïîëüçîâàíèå ðàçëè÷íûõ ïî ñòåïåíè âåæëèâîñòè ôîðìóë, ðåãóëèðóþùèõ âîçìîæíîñòü îêàçàíèÿ êîììóíèêàòèâíîãî âîçäåéñòâèÿ íà ñîáåñåäíèêà, ÿâëÿåòñÿ åñòåñòâåííûì ïðîÿâëåíèåì îáùåïðèíÿòîãî ïî÷òåíèÿ ê ñòàðøèì – ïî âîçðàñòó, ïîëîæåíèþ è ïð. Ñ ïîçèöèé òðàäèöèîííîãî óâàæåíèÿ ê àâòîðèòåòó è îïûòó ñîâåðøåííî åñòåñòâåííî âîñïðèíèìàþòñÿ âûñêàçàííûå íàïðÿìóþ ñîâåòû è êðèòè÷åñêèå çàìå÷àíèÿ, ÷àñòî ñâÿçàííûå ñ ïðîÿâëåíèåì âíèìàíèÿ è çàáîòû, ñ æåëàíèåì ïîìî÷ü. Ñ äðóãîé ñòîðîíû, ðîññèÿíå ïðèâûêëè îáùàòüñÿ, ðóêîâîäñòâóÿñü ïðèíöèïîì ñîïðè÷àñòíîñòè, è â ñâåòå ìîðàëüíî-ýòè÷åñêèõ íîðì ïðîñüáû î ïîìîùè òèïà «ÿ ïðîñòî íå çíàþ, ÷òî ìíå òåïåðü äåëàòü» íå äîïóñêàþò îòâåòà «ýòî òâîè ïðîáëåìû» èëè ññûëêó íà íåõâàòêó âðåìåíè. Äâîéñòâåííîñòü ñëóæèò êàìíåì ïðåòêíîâåíèÿ ïðè ïîïûòêàõ ðîññèÿí ðàçâèâàòü óìåíèå «÷èòàòü ìåæäó ñòðîê». Âîçìîæíîñòü íåîäíîçíà÷íîé èíòåðïðåòàöèè ðå÷åâîãî ïîâåäåíèÿ îòìå÷àåòñÿ è ñàìèìè íîñèòåëÿìè êóëüòóðû. Òàê, ïî ñëîâàì áðèòàíöåâ, “...they hardly ever say what they mean, and very often say the exact opposite. Thus when you are telling a story to an Englishman which elicits the response: ‘How interesting!’, it should not be taken at face value. Faint praise damns as surely as criticism”. Áóäó÷è íåîòúåìëåìîé ÷àñòüþ íàöèîÄîìèíàíòû àíãëîÿçû÷íîãî è ðóññêîÿçû÷íîãî ïîâåäåíèÿ âûðàæåíèå: ïðèìåðû àíãëî ÿçû÷íî å î áùåíèå ðóññêî ÿçû÷íî å î áùåíèå ïîáóæäåíèÿ ïðåäëîæåíèå, ïðèãëàøåíèå, ïðèêàç, ïðîñüáà, ñîâåò è äð. íåîäíîçíà÷íîñòü ïðÿìîëèíåéíîñòü ïîçèòèâíîé îöåíêè êîìïëèìåíò, ïîõâàëà, áëàãîä àðíîñòü è ä ð. ïðåóâåëè÷åíèå ïðåóìåíüøåíèå íåãàòèâíîé îöåíêè êðèòèêà, æàëîáà, óïðåê, îáâèíåíèå è äð. ñìÿã÷åíèå, ïðåóìåíüøåíèå êàòåãîðè÷íîñòü, ïðåóâåëè÷åíèå 10 Ëåêöèÿ ¹ 1 íàëüíîãî ìåíòàëèòåòà, ýòîò ñâîåîáðàçíûé ÿçûê íåäîìîëâîê, ïîíÿòíûé ëþáîìó íîñèòåëþ êóëüòóðû, ÿâëÿåòñÿ îäíèì èç êëþ÷åâûõ ìîìåíòîâ, áåç ó÷¸òà êîòîðîãî èíîñòðàíöó íåâîçìîæíî ñêîëü áû òî íè áûëî ïîëíî âîñïðèíÿòü ñóòü àíãëîÿçû÷íîé êîììóíèêàöèè.  ïðàêòèêå îáùåíèÿ ðåãóëÿðíûå ðàñõîæäåíèÿ ñåìàíòè÷åñêîãî è ïðàãìàòè÷åñêîãî çíà÷åíèé ïðèâîäÿò ê íåïðèåìëåìîìó (ñ òî÷êè çðåíèÿ ðîññèÿí) ïðîòèâîðå÷èþ ìåæäó òåì, ÷òî ãîâîðèòñÿ, è òåì, ÷òî ðåàëüíî ïîäðàçóìåâàåòñÿ. Ýòîìó íàìåðåííî äâóñìûñëåííîìó ñïîñîáó âûðàæåíèÿ â òðàäèöèÿõ àíãëî-àìåðèêàíñêîé êóëüòóðû ïðèäàåòñÿ, îäíàêî, ñîâñåì èíîå çíà÷åíèå. Íåñîîòâåòñòâèå âûñêàçûâàíèÿ èñòèííîìó ïîëîæåíèþ äåë âîâñå íå ðàñöåíèâàåòñÿ êàê ëîæü, ïîñêîëüêó êðèòåðèåì íàëè÷èÿ ëæè ïðè ðå÷åâîì îáùåíèè ÿâëÿåòñÿ íàìåðåíèå îáìàíóòü. Êàê àíãëè÷àíå ñàìè ãîâîðÿò î ñåáå: “In conversation the English… hardly ever lie, but they would not dream of telling you the truth”.  òàêèõ ñèòóàöèÿõ èìåþò ìåñòî êîíâåíöèîíàëüíûå ïðîÿâëåíèÿ «ýòèêåòíîé» âåæëèâîñòè, îáÿçàòåëüíûå è âïîëíå óìåñòíûå ñ ïîçèöèé ðàöèîíàëèçìà è àêöåíòà íà ôîðìå. Èìåííî ïðèâû÷êà ê íåîäíîçíà÷íîé ìàíåðå âûñêàçûâàíèÿ ëåæèò â îñíîâå òàêèõ ðàñïðîñòðàíåííûõ, ïðîòèâîïîëîæíûõ ïî ñâîåé ñóòè ñòåðåîòèïîâ, êàê ëþáåçíîñòü è äîáðîæåëàòåëüíîå ðàñïîëîæåíèå (îñîáåííî ó àìåðèêàíöåâ) è áåçðàçëè÷èå è õîëîäíîñòü (îñîáåííî ó áðèòàíöåâ). Óäèâèòåëüíî ïðè ýòîì, ÷òî â çàðóáåæíûõ ïóòåâîäèòåëÿõ ðîññèÿí òàê ïîðèöàþò çà èõ “vran’e”, êîãäà îíè ãîâîðÿò èíîñòðàíöàì âñåãî ëèøü òî, ÷òî íå âñåãäà ñîîòâåòñòâóåò «èñòèííîìó ïîëîæåíèþ äåë», «÷åñòíî» ïðè ýòîì ñîâìåùàÿ ïðàãìàòè÷åñêóþ è ñìûñëîâóþ óñòàíîâêè. Ìîæíî ñ î÷åâèäíîñòüþ êîíñòàòèðîâàòü î÷åðåäíîå ïðîÿâëåíèå êóëüòóðíîé ñïåöèôèêè, èãíîðèðîâàíèå êîòîðîé çàòðóäíÿåò ïîíèìàíèå òîãî, ÷òî ïðè ìåæêóëüòóðíîì îáùåíèè «ïðàâèëà èãðû» âñå-òàêè ðàçíûå. Òàêèì îáðàçîì, äëÿ àíãëîÿçû÷íîãî îáùåíèÿ õàðàêòåðíà âûñîêàÿ ñòåïåíü íåîäíîçíà÷íîñòè, íåêàòåãîðè÷íîñòè è ýìîòèâíîñòè. Ñóììèðóÿ âûøåèçëîæåííîå, îòìåòèì, ÷òî íà óðîâíå ðå÷è íàèáîëüøèå ðàñõîæäåíèÿ àíãëîÿçû÷íîãî ïîâåäåíèÿ ïî ñðàâíåíèþ ñ ðóññêîÿçû÷íûì íàáëþäàþòñÿ ïðè ðåøåíèè ðå÷åâûõ çàäà÷, óñëîâíî îáúåäèíåííûõ íàìè â òðè òèïà è îðèåíòèðîâàííûõ íà âûðàæåíèå ïîáóæäåíèÿ, ïîçèòèâíîé è íåãàòèâíîé îöåíêè. Äëÿ ýôôåêòèâíîãî êîíòàêòà ñ àíãëîãîâîðÿùèìè ñîáåñåäíèêàìè ðîññèÿíèíó ñëåäóåò ðóêîâîäñòâîâàòüñÿ êîììóíèêàòèâíûìè ïðàâèëàìè, êîòîðûå ìîæíî ñôîðìóëèðîâàòü ñëåäóþùèì îáðàçîì: 1. Ñîáëþäàéòå ðåãëàìåíò, ìåðó è ïðîïîðöèþ. Ïðåäïîñûëêè âûäåëåíèÿ ñòðàòåãèé ðå÷åâîãî ïîâåäåíèÿ 11 2. Ñîáëþäàéòå äèñòàíöèþ, äåðæèòå ñîáåñåäíèêà íà ðàññòîÿíèè. Ïåðâîå ïðàâèëî îñíîâàíî íà ñîáëþäåíèè îáùåïðèíÿòûõ òðåáîâàíèé íà îðãàíèçàöèîííî-êîììóíèêàòèâíîì óðîâíå (ïðåèìóùåñòâåííî â îòíîøåíèè ôàç êîììóíèêàòèâíîãî êîíòàêòà) è ïðåäïîëàãàåò çíàíèå ñòðóêòóðû ïðîöåññà îáùåíèÿ è äîïóñòèìîé òåìàòèêè. Âòîðîå ïðàâèëî ïðåäïîëàãàåò çíàíèå ñòðàòåãèé, ïîçâîëÿþùèõ óïîòðåáëÿòü ðàçëè÷íûå ðå÷åâûå ñðåäñòâà (â òîì ÷èñëå è ôîðìóëû) àäåêâàòíî ïîñòàâëåííûì êîììóíèêàòèâíûì çàäà÷àì.  äàííîì êóðñå ìû ñîñðåäîòî÷èìñÿ ïðåèìóùåñòâåííî íà ðàññìîòðåíèè ñòðàòåãèé, ïîñêîëüêó ñîáëþäåíèå ðåãëàìåíòà, îñíîâàííîå íà çíàíèè îïðåäåëåííîãî íàáîðà ýòèêåòíûõ ôîðìóë (îáðàùåíèÿ, ïðèâåòñòâèÿ, ïðîùàíèÿ è ïð.), ñôåðû è ïîðÿäêà èõ óïîòðåáëåíèÿ, äîñòàòî÷íî ðàçíîñòîðîííå îòðàæåíî â ñîâðåìåííîé ëèòåðàòóðå. Êîììóíèêàòèâíàÿ ñòðàòåãèÿ – ýòî ñîâîêóïíîñòü ÿçûêîâûõ ñðåäñòâ è ðå÷åâûõ ïðèåìîâ äëÿ äîñòèæåíèÿ íàìå÷åííîé öåëè îáùåíèÿ. Ãðóïïû ñòðàòåãèé, îïðåäåëÿåìûå ñ ó÷åòîì òàêèõ ôàêòîðîâ, êàê ðå÷åâàÿ ñèòóàöèÿ è öåëü îáùåíèÿ, ñòåïåíü áëèçîñòè çíàêîìñòâà, ñîöèàëüíûé ñòàòóñ ñîáåñåäíèêîâ è äð., îáîáùåííî ìîæíî ïðåäñòàâèòü ñëåäóþùèì îáðàçîì. Макростратегии маневрирования реагирования стратегии стратегии дистанцирования уклонения поддержки собеседника поддержания контакта намека Ñàìè íàçâàíèÿ ñòðàòåãèé, îáðàçóþùèõ ïåðâóþ ãðóïïó – äèñòàíöèðîâàíèå, óêëîíåíèå è íàìåê, îòðàæàþò õàðàêòåðíûå ÷åðòû àíãëîÿçû÷íîé êîììóíèêàöèè: âûñîêî ðàçâèòûå âîçìîæíîñòè âåðáàëüíîãî ìàíåâðèðîâàíèÿ è ëàâèðîâàíèÿ, óêëîíåíèå îò ïðÿìîëèíåéíîñòè è èíîñêàçàòåëüíîñòü âûñêàçûâàíèé. Ëþáîïûòíà â ñâÿçè ñ ýòèì íàéäåííàÿ Ò.Â. Ëàðèíîé ó Ý. Ãîôìàíà àíàëîãèÿ ìåæäó çíàíèåì ïðàâèë äîðîæíîãî äâèæåíèÿ è âåæëèâîñòè: To study face saving is to study the traffic rules of social interaction. Íàèáîëåå ÿðêî îíè ïðîÿâëÿ- 12 Ëåêöèÿ ¹ 1 þòñÿ â ñèòóàöèÿõ, ïðåäïîëàãàþùèõ âûðàæåíèå ëè÷íîãî îòíîøåíèÿ è íàìåðåíèÿ, è ïîçâîëÿþò ðåãóëèðîâàòü îòâåòñòâåííîñòü çà ñèëó ðå÷åâîãî âîçäåéñòâèÿ è äîñòîâåðíîñòü âûñêàçûâàíèÿ. Åñëè ìàêðîñòðàòåãèÿ ìàíåâðèðîâàíèÿ îðèåíòèðîâàíà íà ëþáîãî èç ãîâîðÿùèõ, òî ìàêðîñòðàòåãèÿ ðåàãèðîâàíèÿ àäðåñîâàíà ïðåèìóùåñòâåííî ñëóøàþùåìó èëè, òî÷íåå – «âòîðîìó ãîâîðÿùåìó», êîòîðûé, íå ïåðåõâàòûâàÿ èíèöèàòèâû, «çàïîëíÿåò ïàóçû», îæèâëÿÿ áåñåäó îòäåëüíûìè ðåïëèêàìè è âûïîëíÿÿ ñâîþ îñíîâíóþ ôóíêöèþ – ïîääåðæàòü ãëàâíîãî ãîâîðÿùåãî, íå äîïóñêàÿ âîçíèêíîâåíèÿ íåëîâêîãî ìîë÷àíèÿ. Êàæäàÿ èç êîììóíèêàòèâíûõ ñòðàòåãèé èìååò â àíãëèéñêîì ÿçûêå õàðàêòåðíîå ëèíãâèñòè÷åñêîå îôîðìëåíèå, îòðàæàÿ ñïåöèôèêó ñîöèîêóëüòóðíîãî ïîäõîäà ê îáùåíèþ. ×òîáû îïèñàííûå âûøå îñîáåííîñòè êîììóíèêàòèâíîãî ïîâåäåíèÿ íå îñòàëèñü óäåëîì ñóãóáî òåîðåòè÷åñêîãî çíàíèÿ, ïîñëåäóþùèå ëåêöèè áóäóò ïîñâÿùåíû ðàññìîòðåíèþ ÿçûêîâûõ ñðåäñòâ, ðåãóëÿðíî óïîòðåáëÿåìûõ äëÿ ðåàëèçàöèè óêàçàííûõ ñòðàòåãèé â ïðàêòèêå ðå÷è íà îñíîâå ñèñòåìíîãî ïîäõîäà. Ðàññìîòðåííûå âûøå ïîëîæåíèÿ ïðèçâàíû ñëóæèòü îñíîâîé äëÿ ðàçâèòèÿ ôîíîâûõ çíàíèé, à íà çàíÿòèè – îòïðàâíîé òî÷êîé äëÿ äèñêóññèè ñîöèîêóëüòóðíîé íàïðàâëåííîñòè. Ïðè ýòîì, ïîñêîëüêó ïðîãðàììîé, êàê ïðàâèëî, íå ïðåäóñìîòðåíî âûäåëåíèÿ ÷àñîâ íà ñïåöèàëüíîå ðàññìîòðåíèå âîïðîñîâ âçàèìîäåéñòâèÿ êóëüòóð, ìîæíî îáðàùàòü âíèìàíèå ó÷àùèõñÿ íà ïðîáëåìû òàêîãî ðîäà, íåèçáåæíî âîçíèêàþùèå ïðè îáñóæäåíèè «ïëàíîâûõ» çàäàíèé. Òàê, íàïðèìåð, íè íà îäíîì óðîêå àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà íåëüçÿ îáîéòèñü áåç âåæëèâîñòè – â òîé èëè èíîé ôîðìå, èëè áåç èçëîæåíèÿ ÷üåéëèáî òî÷êè çðåíèÿ. Ïðåäñòàâëÿåòñÿ öåëåñîîáðàçíûì ïðè ýòîì îðèåíòèðîâàòü ó÷åíèêîâ íå íà ñëåïîå êîïèðîâàíèå ãîòîâûõ îáðàçöîâ âûñêàçûâàíèé èëè íà áåçäóìíîå çàó÷èâàíèå ðå÷åâûõ ôîðìóë, à íà âäóì÷èâîå è îñîçíàííîå îòíîøåíèå ê âûáîðó ñîîòâåòñòâóþùèõ ôðàç è âûðàæåíèé, ïîêàçûâàÿ ðàçëè÷íûå ïîäõîäû, õàðàêòåðíûå äëÿ íîñèòåëåé ðóññêîé è àíãëî-àìåðèêàíñêîé êîììóíèêàòèâíûõ êóëüòóð. Ìîæíî ñðàâíèòü ðàçëè÷íûå ñïîñîáû âûðàæåíèÿ íàìåðåíèé ðîññèÿíàìè è, ñêàæåì, àìåðèêàíöàìè, ñîïîñòàâèòü âîçìîæíûå âàðèàíòû èñïîëüçîâàíèÿ ðàçãîâîðíûõ êëèøå è èõ ïåðåâîäà, ïîïîëíÿÿ ïî ìåðå îñâîåíèÿ ìàòåðèàëà ðå÷åâîé ðåïåðòóàð îáó÷àåìûõ íîâûìè ýëåìåíòàìè. Âîïðîñû ìåæêóëüòóðíîãî õàðàêòåðà (â ñèëó î÷åâèäíîé íåõâàòêè ó÷åáíîãî âðåìåíè) ïðè íàëè÷èè èíòåðåñà ñî ñòîðîíû ó÷àùèõñÿ õîðîøî âûíåñòè íà ñàìîñòîÿòåëüíóþ ïðîðàáîòêó ñ ïîñëåäóþùèì ðàçáîðîì ïîä ðóêîâîäñòâîì ïðåïîäàâàòå- Ïðåäïîñûëêè âûäåëåíèÿ ñòðàòåãèé ðå÷åâîãî ïîâåäåíèÿ 13 ëÿ. Òåìàòèêà òàêèõ îáñóæäåíèé ìîæåò áûòü ñâÿçàíà (â çàâèñèìîñòè îò èíòåðåñîâ è âîçìîæíîñòåé êîíêðåòíîé àóäèòîðèè), íàïðèìåð, ñ âûÿâëåíèåì ðàçëè÷èé êîììóíèêàòèâíîãî ïîâåäåíèÿ áðèòàíöåâ è àìåðèêàíöåâ. Õîðîøèì «ïîëåì» äëÿ íàáëþäåíèé ÿâëÿåòñÿ ïðîñìîòð ôèëüìîâ, – âàæíî â òàêîì ñëó÷àå îðèåíòèðîâàòü çðèòåëÿ íà «ïîèñêîâîå» öåëåíàïðàâëåííîå èõ âîñïðèÿòèå, ñêàæåì, íà îñîáåííîñòè äåðæàòüñÿ è âåñòè áåñåäó, èñïîëüçîâàíèå íåâåðáàëüíûõ ñðåäñòâ îáùåíèÿ, ìèìèêè, æåñòîâ è ïð.). È ïóñòü âàñ íå óäèâëÿåò, åñëè ðåçóëüòàòû áóäóò ñàìûìè íåîæèäàííûìè, – ÷åëîâåê, íàïðàâëÿþùèé ñâîå âíèìàíèå â òàêîå ðóñëî, íåðåäêî ïîäìå÷àåò ìíîãî íîâîãî è èíòåðåñíîãî, ÷òî â èíûõ ñëó÷àÿõ ïðîñòî óñêîëüçàåò èç ïîëÿ çðåíèÿ. Ïîñëåäóþùèå ëåêöèè êóðñà áóäóò ñïîñîáñòâîâàòü íàêîïëåíèþ òåì äëÿ ïîäîáíûõ ðàçìûøëåíèé. Âîïðîñû äëÿ ñàìîêîíòðîëÿ 1.  ÷åì, íà âàø âçãëÿä, îñíîâíîé èñòî÷íèê òðóäíîñòåé, âîçíèêàþùèõ ïðè îáùåíèè ðîññèÿí ñ èõ àíãëî-ãîâîðÿùèìè ñîáåñåäíèêàìè? Ìîæåòå ëè âû, îñíîâûâàÿñü íà ëè÷íîì îïûòå, ëèòåðàòóðíûõ èëè èíûõ èñòî÷íèêàõ, ïðîèëëþñòðèðîâàòü ñâîå ìíåíèå? 2. Êàêîâû íàèáîëåå õàðàêòåðíûå îñîáåííîñòè ðóññêîÿçû÷íîãî îáùåíèÿ, è ÷åì îíè îòëè÷àþòñÿ îò àíãëîÿçû÷íîãî? Ïðèâåäèòå ïðèìåðû.  ÷åì ïðîÿâëÿåòñÿ äâîéñòâåííîñòü àíãëîÿçû÷íîãî îáùåíèÿ? 3. Êàêèå òåíäåíöèè, íàáëþäàåìûå â ñîâðåìåííîì ðîññèéñêîì è àìåðèêàíñêîì îáùåñòâå, îêàçûâàþò íåïîñðåäñòâåííîå âëèÿíèå íà êîììóíèêàòèâíîå ïîâåäåíèå? Îòðàæàåòñÿ ëè ýòî íà óðîâíå ðå÷åâîãî ïîâåäåíèÿ? Îñíîâíàÿ ëèòåðàòóðà 1. Êóçüìåíêîâà Þ.Á. «Îò òðàäèöèé êóëüòóðû ê íîðìàì ðå÷åâîãî ïîâåäåíèÿ áðèòàíöåâ, àìåðèêàíöåâ è ðîññèÿí». – Ì.: ÃÓ-ÂØÝ, 2005. (Ìîíîãðàôèÿ àâòîðà, íà êîòîðîé îñíîâàí íàñòîÿùèé êóðñ ëåêöèé.  êíèãå èññëåäóåòñÿ îòðàæåíèå äîìèíàíòíûõ ÷åðò òðàäèöèé ðàññìàòðèâàåìûõ êóëüòóð â êîììóíèêàòèâíîì ïîâåäåíèè èõ íîñèòåëåé è ôîðìóëèðóþòñÿ êîíêðåòíûå ñòðàòåãèè ýôôåêòèâíîãî àíãëîÿçû÷íîãî îáùåíèÿ, îðèåíòèðîâàííûå íà ïðàêòè÷åñêîå èñïîëüçîâàíèå; â ðàáîòå ñîäåðæèòñÿ èñ÷åðïûâàþùèéñÿ ñïèñîê ëèòåðàòóðû ïî äàííîé ïðîáëåìàòèêå.) 2. Êóçüìåíêîâà Þ.Á. «Àçû âåæëèâîãî îáùåíèÿ». – Îáíèíñê: Òèòóë, 2001. (Ïîñîáèå ïî ìåæêóëüòóðíîé êîììóíèêàöèè, èëëþñòðèðóþùåå ðàçíîîáðàçíûå âîçìîæíîñòè ïðèìåíåíèÿ çíàíèé êóëü- 14 Ëåêöèÿ ¹ 1 òóðîëîãè÷åñêîé íàïðàâëåííîñòè â ïðàêòèêå ïðåïîäàâàíèÿ àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà, ñòàâøåå â 2004 ã. ëàóðåàòîì Âñåðîññèéñêîãî êîíêóðñà íà ëó÷øèé ó÷åáíèê ãîäà ïî èíîñòðàííîìó ÿçûêó, ïðîâîäèìîãî Íàó÷íî-ìåòîäè÷åñêèì ñîâåòîì ïî èíîñòðàííûì ÿçûêàì ÌÎ ÐÔ, ñ ïðèñâîåíèåì ãðèôà ÌÎ ÐÔ «Ðåêîìåíäîâàíî». Ïîñîáèå îñíîâàíî íà ìîäóëüíîì ïîäõîäå ê îáó÷åíèþ, â ñîîòâåòñòâèè ñ ÷åì èìåþùèåñÿ â íåì ìàòåðèàëû è ìåòîäèêà èõ ïîäà÷è âïîëíå ìîãóò áûòü èñïîëüçîâàíû ñ ðàçíûìè êàòåãîðèÿìè îáó÷àþùèõñÿ, â ïåðâóþ î÷åðåäü, ñî øêîëüíèêàìè è ñòóäåíòàìè.) Äîïîëíèòåëüíàÿ ëèòåðàòóðà 1. Âåæáèöêàÿ À. ßçûê. Êóëüòóðà. Ïîçíàíèå. – Ìîñêâà, 1997. 2. Ñàíòàÿíà Äæ. Õàðàêòåð è ìèðîâîççðåíèå àìåðèêàíöåâ. – Ìîñêâà, Èäåÿ-Ïðåññ, 2003. 3. Hall E.T., Hall M.L. Understanding Cultural Differences: Germans, French and Americans. – Intercultural Press, Inc., 1990 4. Hofstede G.I. Culture’s Consequences: International Differences in Work-related Values. – Beverley Hills (Cal.), 1980 5. Samovar L.A., Porter R.E. (eds.). Intercultural Communication. A Reader. 9th edition. Wadsworth Publishing Company, ITP, 2000. Ïðåäïîñûëêè âûäåëåíèÿ ñòðàòåãèé ðå÷åâîãî ïîâåäåíèÿ 15 Ëåêöèÿ 2. Ñòðàòåãèè äèñòàíöèðîâàíèÿ Äèñòàíöèðîâàííîñòü, êàê óæå óïîìèíàëîñü âî ââîäíîé ëåêöèè, ëåæèò â îñíîâå áàçîâûõ öåííîñòíûõ îðèåíòàöèé áðèòàíöåâ è àìåðèêàíöåâ – â îòíîøåíèè ê ïðîñòðàíñòâó è âðåìåíè, ëè÷íîñòè è âëàñòè.  ïðîöåññå îáùåíèÿ äèñòàíöèðîâàíèå ìîæåò ñëóæèòü ìîùíûì èíñòðóìåíòîì âîçäåéñòâèÿ íà îêðóæàþùèõ; ýòî ñâîåãî ðîäà èñêóññòâî, ïîçâîëÿþùåå êàê â ïðÿìîì ñìûñëå ñëîâà, òàê è óìîçðèòåëüíî ðåãóëèðîâàòü ñòåïåíü áëèçîñòè / óäàëåííîñòè ñîáåñåäíèêîâ, âîçäâèãàÿ ïðè íåîáõîäèìîñòè íåïðåîäîëèìûå ïðåãðàäû äëÿ çàùèòû ñâîåé òåððèòîðèè. ×óâñòâî «òåððèòîðèàëüíîñòè» êàê îáùå÷åëîâå÷åñêàÿ ÷åðòà ïî-ðàçíîìó ïðîÿâëÿåòñÿ â ïîâñåäíåâíîé æèçíè. Îíî ðàñïðîñòðàíÿåòñÿ ïîìèìî ìåñò, êîòîðûå ìû ïðèâûêëè ñ÷èòàòü «ñâîèìè» (íàïðèìåð, êóõíÿ èëè äåòñêàÿ), è íà ïðåäìåòû îáëàäàíèÿ (íàïðèìåð, ìàøèíà, èãðóøêè), è äàæå íà äîìàøíèõ ëþáèìöåâ. Ïðè ýòîì «ñâîå» âîñïðèíèìàåòñÿ – â òîé èëè èíîé ìåðå – êàê íåïðèêîñíîâåííîå, è ïðàâîì äîñòóïà îáû÷íî ïîëüçóåòñÿ òîëüêî âåñüìà îãðàíè÷åííûé êðóã áëèçêèõ ëþäåé. Ñòåïåíü «íåïðèêîñíîâåííîñòè» íàïðÿìóþ çàâèñèò îò ðàçâèòîñòè ÷óâñòâà ñîáñòâåííîñòè, îïðåäåëÿþùåãî îòíîøåíèå ê ëè÷íûì âëàäåíèÿì è íåîáõîäèìîñòü èõ çàùèòû. Äëÿ ïîääåðæàíèÿ ñâîåé òåððèòîðèè â öåëîñòè è ñîõðàííîñòè ñîâðåìåííûé ÷åëîâåê èçîáðåë ðàçëè÷íûå ñïîñîáû, ïîçâîëÿþùèå ìàðêèðîâàòü å¸ ãðàíèöû. Ýòî ìîãóò áûòü ëè÷íûå âåùè íà êðåñëå, ñòàêàí íà ñòîëå, îñòàâëåííûå â çíàê òîãî, ÷òî ìåñòî çàíÿòî; «ìåòêè» ñ íàçâàíèåì ôèðìû-èçãîòîâèòåëÿ, èìåííûå ìåòêè íà áåëüå è ïð. Ñ öåëüþ äèñòàíöèðîâàòüñÿ îò íåæåëàòåëüíûõ âèçóàëüíûõ êîíòàêòîâ ëþäè íåðåäêî íàäåâàþò ñîëíöåçàùèòíûå î÷êè, îòãîðàæèâàþòñÿ îò îêðóæàþùèõ ïðè ïîìîùè äåìîíñòðàòèâíîãî ÷òåíèÿ ãàçåò, æóðíàëîâ èëè âîçâîäÿò ïðåãðàäû â âèäå çàáîðîâ. Áðèòàíöû è àìåðèêàíöû, îáåðåãàÿ «ñâîþ òåððèòîðèþ», îáû÷íî íå ïðèâåòñòâóþò óñòàíîâëåíèÿ êîíòàêòîâ ñ íåçíàêîìûìè ëþäüìè íè íà âåðáàëüíîì, íè íà âèçóàëüíîì óðîâíå. Äàæå åñëè, íàïðèìåð, â ðåñòîðàíå ê âàì çà ñòîëèê ïîñàäèëè ïîñòîðîííåãî, òî ïîñëå ïåðâîãî îáìåíà âçãëÿäàìè êàæäûé îáû÷íî ñìîòðèò ê ñåáå â òàðåëêó èëè ïî ñòîðîíàì, èíîãäà âîçâîäÿ «ïðåãðàäó» èç ñòîëîâûõ ïðèáîðîâ äëÿ îáîçíà÷åíèÿ ãðàíèö ëè÷íîãî ïðîñòðàíñòâà. Ýòó æå öåëü – ñîõðàíåíèå ïðèâû÷íîé ñòåïåíè äèñòàíöèðîâàííîñòè – ïðåñëåäóþò ïðè îáðàùåíèè ê ïðèåìàì äåìîíñò- 16 Ëåêöèÿ ¹ 2 ðàòèâíîé âåæëèâîñòè (÷òî òàêæå íåðåäêî ðàñöåíèâàåòñÿ â Ðîññèè êàê ïðîÿâëåíèå íåèñêðåííîñòè).  àíãëî-àìåðèêàíñêîé êóëüòóðíîé òðàäèöèè ïðè ñëó÷àéíîì íàðóøåíèè ëè÷íîãî ïðîñòðàíñòâà äðóãîãî ÷åëîâåêà ïðèíÿòî èçâèíèòüñÿ – äàæå åñëè âû, íàïðèìåð, ïðîõîäÿ ìèìî, â äåéñòâèòåëüíîñòè åãî íå çàäåëè. Àíàëîãè÷íûì îáðàçîì íåìûñëèìî êàêîå-ëèáî âòîðæåíèå â «÷óæîå ïðîñòðàíñòâî» – ôèçè÷åñêîå èëè äóõîâíîå, íà÷èíàÿ îò ëè÷íûõ âåùåé (íàïðèìåð, êîììåíòàðèè ïî ïîâîäó âíåøíåãî âèäà, äàæå ðîäñòâåííèêîâ, èëè ïðîñìîòðà äîêóìåíòàöèè, îòêðûòî ëåæàùåé íà ðàáî÷åì ìåñòå) è êîí÷àÿ ëè÷íîé æèçíüþ è ìàíåðîé ïîâåäåíèÿ (ñð. íåïðîøåíûå ñîâåòû). È íåóäèâèòåëüíî, ÷òî èç-çà íåñîâïàäåíèÿ êîìôîðòíîãî ðàññòîÿíèÿ îáùåíèÿ ïðåäñòàâèòåëè ðàçíûõ êóëüòóð îòíîñÿòñÿ äðóã ê äðóãó ñ íåêîòîðîé äîëåé ïîäîçðèòåëüíîñòè. Òàê, ïîïûòêè ðîññèÿí ñîêðàòèòü äèñòàíöèþ ìîãóò âîñïðèíèìàòüñÿ êàê óãðîçà èëè ôëèðò, ÷òî íåèçáåæíî âûçûâàåò ñîîòâåòñòâóþùóþ ðåàêöèþ áðèòàíöåâ, êîòîðûõ èç-çà ñòðåìëåíèÿ ýòó äèñòàíöèþ óâåëè÷èòü íåðåäêî óïðåêàþò â õîëîäíîñòè, âûñîêîìåðèè èëè ïðåçðåíèè ê ëþäÿì. Ðàñõîæäåíèÿ â ñòåïåíè áëèçîñòè / óäàëåííîñòè ãîâîðÿùèõ óæå ñàìî ïî ñåáå íåðåäêî ñîçäàåò ïî÷âó äëÿ âçàèìíîãî íåïîíèìàíèÿ, à ñòðåìëåíèå áåñåäîâàòü íà ïðèâû÷íîì äëÿ ñåáÿ ðàññòîÿíèè ïðèâîäèò ê ñâîåîáðàçíîìó «ìåæêóëüòóðíîìó òàíöó». Ïî àíàëîãèè ñ ÿçûêîì ïðîñòðàíñòâà ëþáîé êóëüòóðå ïðèñóù ñâîé íåïîâòîðèìûé ÿçûê âðåìåíè, ñ ïîìîùüþ êîòîðîãî ìîæíî âûðàçèòü îòíîøåíèå ê ÷åëîâåêó, îáîçíà÷èâ åãî ìåñòî â ñîöèàëüíîé èåðàðõèè. Àìåðèêàíöàìè è áðèòàíöàìè «äèñòàíöèðîâàíèå âðåìåíåì» â òàêèõ, íàïðèìåð, ôîðìàõ, êàê âûíóæäåííîå îæèäàíèå, îòñóòñòâèå çàáëàãîâðåìåííîãî èçâåùåíèÿ î ïðåäñòîÿùèõ ìåðîïðèÿòèÿõ, ìîæåò (÷àùå, ÷åì ðîññèÿíàìè, áîëåå ãèáêèì â îòíîøåíèè ê ãðàôèêàì) âîñïðèíèìàòüñÿ êàê ñåðüåçíîå îñêîðáëåíèå. Ëþáîå íàðóøåíèå âðåìåííûõ çîí (îïîçäàíèå, íåñâîåâðåìåííî ñäàííûå äîêóìåíòû, çàòÿíóâøèéñÿ âèçèò èëè ðàçãîâîð, âìåøàòåëüñòâî â áåñåäó ïîñòîðîííèõ, íåçàïëàíèðîâàííîå èçìåíåíèå íàìå÷åííûõ ñðîêîâ) âûçûâàåò ïîñëåäñòâèÿ, ïîäîáíûå íàðóøåíèþ çîí ïðîñòðàíñòâåííûõ, è ðàñöåíèâàåòñÿ êàê ïîêóøåíèå íà ñâîáîäíîå âðåìÿ, ÷òî ðàâíîöåííî âòîðæåíèþ íà ëè÷íóþ òåððèòîðèþ. Ñòðåìëåíèå ê ñîáëþäåíèþ îáùåñòâåííî ïðèçíàííûõ âðåìåííûõ ðàìîê è ñòðîãîå ðàçãðàíè÷åíèå èõ äëèòåëüíîñòè îòðàæàþò ñâîéñòâåííîå áðèòàíöàì è àìåðèêàíöàì âîñïðèÿòèå âðåìåíè (è ïðîñòðàíñòâà) êàê ñâîåãî ðîäà ñîáñòâåííîñòè. Ñîîòíåñåííîñòü ïðîñòðàíñòâåííî-âðåìåííîé îðãàíèçàöèè îáùåíèÿ ñ äèñòàíöèðîâàííîñòüþ ëþäåé â îáùåñòâå òàêæå ïðîÿâëÿ- Ñòðàòåãèè äèñòàíöèðîâàíèÿ 17 åòñÿ íà óðîâíå êîììóíèêàòèâíîãî ïîâåäåíèÿ. Ïðè ýòîì íå ñëåäóåò çàáûâàòü, ÷òî î÷åâèäíûå äëÿ êàæäîé êîíêðåòíîé êóëüòóðû ïðàâèëà, ðåãóëèðóþùèå èñïîëüçîâàíèå ìåæëè÷íîñòíîãî ïðîñòðàíñòâà, êîòîðûì å¸ ïðåäñòàâèòåëè ñëåäóþò àâòîìàòè÷åñêè (íå ñòàâÿ ïîä ñîìíåíèå èõ óíèâåðñàëüíîñòü), òàêîâûìè íå ÿâëÿþòñÿ, ÷òî ñëóæèò îäíèì èç îñíîâíûõ èñòî÷íèêîâ âçàèìíîãî íåïîíèìàíèÿ. Ñòàòóñíîå äèñòàíöèðîâàíèå îáóñëîâëåíî ïðèíÿòîé â êîíêðåòíîé êóëüòóðå èåðàðõèåé ãåíäåðíûõ, âîçðàñòíûõ è ñòàòóñíûõ îòíîøåíèé, îïðåäåëÿþùåé «ðàçìåðû» ñóùåñòâóþùåé äèñòàíöèè «ïî ãîðèçîíòàëè» è «ïî âåðòèêàëè».  îáùèõ ÷åðòàõ ìîæíî îòìåòèòü ïðÿìóþ çàâèñèìîñòü ðàçìåðîâ ïðîñòðàíñòâåííûõ çîí îò ðàñïðåäåëåíèÿ ñòàòóñíûõ ðîëåé: «âåðòèêàëüíîå» ìåæëè÷íîñòíîå âçàèìîäåéñòâèå (â îòíîøåíèÿõ òèïà íà÷àëüíèê – ïîä÷èíåííûé, ó÷èòåëü – ó÷åíèê, ñòàðøèé – ìëàäøèé, ðîäèòåëè – äåòè) ïðåäïîëàãàåò áîëüøóþ äèñòàíöèþ ìåæäó ñîáåñåäíèêàìè, íåæåëè «ãîðèçîíòàëüíîå». Ñîîòâåòñòâåííî, â èåðàðõè÷íîé ðóññêîé êóëüòóðå íàáëþäàåòñÿ áîëüøàÿ äèñòàíöèÿ «ïî âåðòèêàëè», è àâòîðèòàðíîå ïîâåäåíèå ëèö, íàäåëåííûõ âëàñòüþ, äîïóñêàåò ñâîáîäíîå èñïîëüçîâàíèå äèðåêòèâíûõ âûñêàçûâàíèé; ïðÿìîå ïîáóæäåíèå ÿâëÿåòñÿ íîðìîé, à âûáîð ñðåäñòâ âûðàæåíèÿ èìïåðàòèâà â çíà÷èòåëüíîé ìåðå îáóñëîâëåí ñîöèàëüíûì ïîëîæåíèåì ó÷àñòíèêîâ êîììóíèêàöèè. Ñðåäè áðèòàíöåâ è àìåðèêàíöåâ, äåêëàðèðóþùèõ «äåìîêðàòè÷íûå» óñòàíîâêè, ïîä÷åðêèâàíèå ñòàòóñíûõ ðàçëè÷èé íåæåëàòåëüíî, òàê êàê íå ïðèâåòñòâóåòñÿ äåìîíñòðàöèÿ âëàñòè è áîãàòñòâà. Õîðîøî èçâåñòíàÿ íåïðèíóæäåííîñòü (îñîáåííî àìåðèêàíöåâ) ñëóæèò èñòî÷íèêîì íåïðèÿòèÿ äëÿ ðîññèÿí, ïðèâûêøèõ ê èíûì ïðàâèëàì ïîâåäåíèÿ: ñâîáîäíàÿ ìàíåðà âûñêàçûâàòüñÿ è äåðæàòüñÿ ðàñêîâàííî (íàïðèìåð, â òèïè÷íîé ñèòóàöèè ó÷åíèê – ó÷èòåëü) íåðåäêî ðàñöåíèâàåòñÿ êàê íåäîñòàòîê óâàæåíèÿ, ñòàâÿùèé ïîä ñîìíåíèå àâòîðèòåò ñòàðøåãî. Ðîññèÿí â òàêèõ ñëó÷àÿõ óïðåêàþò â ÷ðåçìåðíîé çàâèñèìîñòè è îòñóòñòâèè ïðèâû÷êè ê ñàìîñòîÿòåëüíîìó ìûøëåíèþ. Ñ äðóãîé ñòîðîíû, åäèíûé óíèôèöèðîâàííûé ïîäõîä ê ñîáëþäåíèþ íîðì âåæëèâîãî îáùåíèÿ – â îòíîøåíèè êàê âûøåñòîÿùèõ, òàê è ïîä÷èíåííûõ, íå âïîëíå ïðèâû÷åí äëÿ ðîññèÿí, ñòàëêèâàþùèõñÿ, íàïðèìåð, ñ íåîáõîäèìîñòüþ âåñòè îäèíàêîâî ëþáåçíûé small talk êàê ñ íà÷àëüñòâîì, òàê è ñ îáñëóæèâàþùèì ïåðñîíàëîì. Âñå îòìå÷åííûå îñîáåííîñòè ïðîåöèðóþòñÿ íåïîñðåäñòâåííî íà ðàçãîâîð è îïðåäåëÿþò ëèíãâèñòè÷åñêîå ñîäåðæàíèå èñïîëüçóåìûõ ñòðàòåãèé è òàêòèê.  äàííîé ëåêöèè ìû ïîäðîáíî ðàññìîòðèì ðàçëè÷íûå âîçìîæíîñòè äèñòàíöèðîâàíèÿ íà ðå÷åâîì óðîâíå. 18 Ëåêöèÿ ¹ 2 Ñòðàòåãèÿ äèñòàíöèðîâàíèÿ ïðåäïîëàãàåò èñïîëüçîâàíèå öåëîãî ðÿäà ëåêñèêî-ãðàììàòè÷åñêèõ ñðåäñòâ, ñâÿçàííûõ ñ êàòåãîðèåé ìîäàëüíîñòè. Ê íèì îòíîñÿòñÿ: ñìåùåíèå âðåìåííîãî ïëàíà, óñëîâíîå íàêëîíåíèå, âîïðîñèòåëüíûå êîíñòðóêöèè, ìîäàëüíûå ãëàãîëû, ìîäàëüíûå ìîäèôèêàòîðû – ëåêñèêî-ñèíòàêñè÷åñêèå åäèíèöû, îðèåíòèðîâàííûå íà ãîâîðÿùåãî èëè ñëóøàþùåãî. Ñ èõ ïîìîùüþ ìîæíî ïðèäàòü âûñêàçûâàíèÿì íåêóþ êàæóùóþñÿ óäàëåííîñòü îò ðåàëüíîñòè (äåëàÿ èõ òåì ñàìûì áîëåå âåæëèâûìè). Îíè òàêæå ïîìîãàþò îáåñïå÷èòü óäîáíîå äëÿ ñîáåñåäíèêîâ óìîçðèòåëüíîå ðàññòîÿíèå, ïîçâîëÿþùåå ÷óâñòâîâàòü êîìôîðòíîñòü ïðè îáùåíèè. Èñõîäÿ èç íàáîðà êîíêðåòíûõ ëåêñèêî-ãðàììàòè÷åñêèõ ñðåäñòâ, ðåàëèçóåìûõ â âûøåîçíà÷åííûõ ñòðàòåãè÷åñêèõ öåëÿõ, ìîæíî íàìåòèòü äâå òàêòèêè äèñòàíöèðîâàíèÿ, ñâÿçàííûå ñî ñìåùåíèåì âðåìåííîãî ïëàíà è ñ èñïîëüçîâàíèåì ìîäàëüíûõ ãëàãîëîâ è óñëîâíîãî íàêëîíåíèÿ. (Òàáë. 1) Ñìåùåíèå âðåìåííîãî ïëàíà ìîæíî èñïîëüçîâàòü êàê ãðàììàòè÷åñêîå ñðåäñòâî ñíèæåíèÿ êàòåãîðè÷íîñòè âûñêàçûâàíèÿ, äëÿ òîãî ÷òîáû ïðèäàòü èíñòðóêöèÿì, ðàñïîðÿæåíèÿì èëè ïðèêàçàì âèä âåæëèâîé ïðîñüáû è îáëå÷ü â òàêòè÷íóþ ôîðìó âîïðîñû ëè÷íîãî õàðàêòåðà, âûðàæåíèå íàìåðåíèé, ðàçëè÷íîãî ðîäà ïðåäëîæåíèÿ è ò.ï. Ïî ìíåíèþ áðèòàíñêèõ èññëåäîâàòåëåé, ïðè ðåøåíèè òàêèõ ðå÷åâûõ çàäà÷ â êà÷åñòâå ñâîåãî ðîäà «äèñòàíöèðóþùèõ ñòðóêòóð» óìåñòíåå óïîòðåáëÿòü íå âûñêàçûâàíèÿ â Present Simple, à Past èëè Future, ïîäðàçóìåâàþùèå íåêîå ñìåùåíèå â ïðîøëîå èëè áóäóùåå îòíîñèòåëüíî ìîìåíòà ðå÷è, äàþùåå ñâîáîäó âûáîðà îòâåòíûõ ðåïëèê. Ïðîèëëþñòðèðóåì âîçìîæíîñòè ðåàëèçàöèè ýòîé òàêòèêè íà ñëåäóþùèõ ïðèìåðàõ. (Òàáë. 2) Íà èñïîëüçîâàíèè ïðîñòîãî áóäóùåãî âðåìåíè ñòðîÿòñÿ îáùåïðèíÿòûå ôîðìóëû ïðèêàçàíèÿ/èíñòðóêöèè (will you...) è ïðåäëîæåíèÿ (shall I/we ...); äëÿ ñìÿã÷åíèÿ ñîäåðæàíèÿ íàìåðåíèÿ âîçТаблица 1 Тактика смещения временного плана Distancing Tense Forms Tense Forms Future Present Past Simple ———— Simple Continuous Continuous Continuous Functions e.g.: order, request, parting formulae, instruction, suggestion, offer, enquiry, accepting offers, stating intentions, etc Ñòðàòåãèè äèñòàíöèðîâàíèÿ 19 Таблица 2 Техника смещения в прошлое или будущее Indefinite Tenses: the Future and the Past Functions Indirect I’ll have to ask you to sign it./You’ll need to sign it. order/instruction Will you open the books and start reading? Shall we go out for a meal somewhere suggestion/offer downtown? offering/accepting – That will be $10. – That’ll be OK. (In a shop) How many guests did you intend to polite enquiry invite over? request formulae I thought you could /would like to... I thought it might be nice to visit an suggestion old friend. I wondered if you were free at ten request/offer o’clock? order formulae Direct (You must) Sign it. Open the books and start reading. Let’s go out for a meal... – It is $10. – That’s OK. How many...do you intend to... I think you could... I think it’s nice to visit a friend. I wonder if you are free at ten? ìîæíû òàêæå âàðèàíòû ñ ãëàãîëàìè need è have to: You will need to wait downstairs. Will you join us in 10 minutes? Îíè èñïîëüçóþòñÿ âìåñòî ïðÿìîãî óêàçàíèÿ, âûðàæåííîãî ïîâåëèòåëüíûì íàêëîíåíèåì: Wait downstairs. Join us in 10 minutes. Ïðè ýòîì ñëåäóåò îáðàòèòü âíèìàíèå íà òî, ÷òî «÷èñòûé» èìïåðàòèâ íåðåäêî ÿâëÿåòñÿ ïðîñòî îñêîðáèòåëüíûì äëÿ àíãëîãîâîðÿùåãî ñîáåñåäíèêà, ÷òî ðàâíîöåííî íåïîñðåäñòâåííîìó ïîêóøåíèþ íà ñâîáîäó åãî äåéñòâèé. Äëÿ ôîðìóë âåæëèâîé ïðîñüáû è âîïðîñà õàðàêòåðíî óïîòðåáëåíèå ïðîñòîãî ïðîøåäøåãî âðåìåíè, òàêæå óñòàíàâëèâàþùåå íåêóþ äèñòàíöèþ ìåæäó ìîìåíòîì ðå÷è è ñàìèì ïðåäìåòîì ïðîñüáû/ âîïðîñà, îòîäâèãàþùåãî ïîñëåäíèé êàê áû íà ñòóïåíüêó â ïðîøëîå. Ñð.: I think/I wonder if you could lend me your computer? I wondered/ I thought if you could.... Ïðè ýòîì ìîäàëüíûå ìîäèôèêàòîðû I think / I wonder, îðèåíòèðîâàííûå íà ãîâîðÿùåãî è âûðàæàþùèå êàê áû åãî òî÷êó çðåíèÿ, ïðèîáðåòàþò áîëüøóþ ñòåïåíü êîñâåííîñòè. Ýòà òàêòèêà óìåñòíà è â ðàçãîâîðå î äåíüãàõ, êîòîðûå âàì êòîòî äîëæåí (íåîáõîäèìî ñãëàäèòü íåëîâêîñòü, ïîñêîëüêó ïðÿìîé ðàçãîâîð î ôèíàíñàõ – îäíà èç «çàïðåòíûõ» òåì). Ñð.: That will be 25 thousand dollars, please (ïåðåíîñ â áóäóùåå); èëè æå ìîæíî èçáåæàòü íåëîâêîñòè ñèòóàöèè, ãîâîðÿ î íåé êàê áû â ïðîøëîì. Ñð.: 20 Ëåêöèÿ ¹ 2 How much did you intend to spend? âìåñòî âîïðîñà â ëîá: How much do you want to spend? Òåõíèêà èñïîëüçîâàíèÿ ïðîäîëæåííîãî âðåìåíè Ñëåäóþùèé áëîê ïðèìåðîâ èëëþñòðèðóåò âîçìîæíîñòè óïîòðåáëåíèÿ ïðîäîëæåííîãî âðåìåíè â àíàëîãè÷íûõ ñòðàòåãè÷åñêèõ öåëÿõ. (Òàáë. 3) Ïðîäîëæåííîå âðåìÿ ÷àñòî èñïîëüçóåòñÿ â òåõ æå âîïðîñàõ è ïðîñüáàõ, ñîîáùàÿ èì îòòåíîê êàê áû âñêîëüçü áðîøåííîãî çàìå÷àíèÿ, à âûðàæàåìûå â òàêîé ôîðìå íàìåðåíèÿ èëè ïðåäëîæåíèÿ çâó÷àò ìåíåå íàâÿç÷èâî. Òàê, íàïðèìåð, åñëè âàì íàäî óçíàòü î ÷åì-òî óæå ðåøåííîì èëè îñâåäîìèòüñÿ î ÷üèõ-òî ïëàíàõ, íåîáõîäèìî äàòü ïîíÿòü ñîáåñåäíèêó, ÷òî âû íèêîèì îáðàçîì íå ñîáèðàåòåñü âìåøèâàòüñÿ â åãî íàìåðåíèÿ èëè ïîâëèÿòü íà åãî ðåøåíèå, íå ãîâîðÿ óæå î òîì, ÷òîáû îêàçûâàòü ïðÿìîå äàâëåíèå â ôîðìå ïðèêàçà. Ñð. Will you be leaving this afternoon? (simply enquiring about sb’s plans) Are you going to leave this afternoon? (pressing for a decision) Will you leave this afternoon? (requesting/ordering). Ïðîäîëæåííîå âðåìÿ ÷àñòî âñòðå÷àåòñÿ â îáùåïðèíÿòûõ ôîðìóëàõ ñ ìîäàëüíûìè ìîäèôèêàòîðàìè, íàïðèìåð ïðè âûðàæåíèè âåæëèâîé ïðîñüáû / ïðåäëîæåíèÿ: I was thinking/I was wondering/I’m hoping you could lend me ... (cð. I think – what about borrowing...; I wonder if you have...; I hope you could lend me...); Таблица 3 Continuous Tenses Functions polite enquiry stating intentions request formulae parting formulae polite enquiry suggestion request formulae Indirect What meetings are you planning to arrange? I’m sorry, I must be going, or I’ll be late for dinner. I’m hoping you can give me a hand in packing. I’m looking forward to hearing from you soon. Will you be staying with us at Christmas? I was thinking – what about having a picnic? I was wondering if you had a bag to spare? Direct Let us know your plans. Sorry, I must go, or I’ll be late. I hope you can give me… I look forward to hearing… Ñòðàòåãèè äèñòàíöèðîâàíèÿ èëè æå, íàïðèìåð, ïðîùàíèÿ: I must be going, I’m looking forward to...(cð. I must go, I look forward to...) è ïð. Ãîâîðÿ î íàñòîÿùåì, ðåêîìåíäóåòñÿ ñòðîèòü áåñåäó íà áàçå ïðîäîëæåííîãî âðåìåíè, ïîñêîëüêó çàëîæåííîå â íåì çíà÷åíèå íåçàâåðøåííîñòè ïðèäàåò âûñêàçûâàíèþ áîëüøóþ ïî ñðàâíåíèþ ñ ïðîñòûì íàñòîÿùèì íåïðèíóæäåííîñòü è íåîïðåäåëåííîñòü: â ýòîì ñâåòå áóäóùåå è ïðîøåäøåå ïðîäîëæåííîå îáëàäàþò êàê áû äâóìÿ óðîâíÿìè äèñòàíöèðîâàíèÿ.  ðóññêîì ÿçûêå åñòü àíàëîãè÷íûå äèñòàíöèðóþùèå ñðåäñòâà, âàðüèðóþùèåñÿ â çàâèñèìîñòè îò òîãî, â êàêîé ìåðå íåîáõîäèìî «ñãëàæèâàòü» ñèòóàöèþ. Ñð.: Âàì ïðèäåòñÿ ïîäîæäàòü; ß (òóò áûëî) ïîäóìàë, íå ñìîæåøü ëè òû îäîëæèòü... Êàê äîëãî âû ñîáèðàåòåñü ïðîáûòü çäåñü? Ñêîëüêî âû ñîáèðàëèñü ïîòðàòèòü? Ýòî áóäåò ñòîèòü... è ò.ï., îäíàêî èõ âûáîð è ÷àñòîòíîñòü óïîòðåáëåíèÿ âî ìíîãîì îáóñëîâëåíû êîììóíèêàòèâíûì êîíòåêñòîì. Äëÿ ÷åëîâåêà àíãëî-àìåðèêàíñêîé êóëüòóðû îáðàùåíèå ê äàííîé òàêòèêå ÿâëÿåòñÿ íîðìîé, è â çàâèñèìîñòè îò ïðàãìàòè÷åñêîé óñòàíîâêè îáùåíèÿ (è ñîîòâåòñòâåííî îò ñòåïåíè âûðàæåííîñòè ñòðåìëåíèÿ äèñòàíöèðîâàòüñÿ) îñóùåñòâëÿåòñÿ âûáîð ðå÷åâûõ ñðåäñòâ. (Òàáë. 4) Àíãëèéñêèå ìîäàëüíûå ãëàãîëû, ïåðåäàþùèå áëàãîäàðÿ ñïåöèôèêå ñâîåé ñåìàíòèêè öåëûé ñïåêòð ðàçíîîáðàçíûõ îòòåíêîâ ìîäàëüíîñòè, ÿâëÿþòñÿ íåçàìåíèìûìè «ðåãóëÿòîðàìè âåæëèâîñòè». Îíè ïîçâîëÿþò âàðüèðîâàòü ñòåïåíü îáÿçàòåëüíîñòè ñëåäîâàòü ñîâåòó, æåëàòåëüíîñòè âûïîëíèòü ïðîñüáó, ïîçâîëèòåëüíîñòè ñîâåðøèòü äåéñòâèå è ïð. Îáðàùåíèå ê óñëîâíîìó íàêëîíåíèþ òàêæå ñîîáùàåò âûñêàçûâàíèÿì îïðåäåëåííóþ äîëþ ïðåäïîëîæèòåëüíîñòè è ãèïîòåòè÷íîñòè, óâåëè÷èâàÿ äèñòàíöèþ ìåæäó åãî ñîäåðæàíèåì è ïðàãìàòè÷åñêèì çíà÷åíèåì. Íèæå ìû ïðîàíàëèçèðóåì âîçìîæíîñòè èñïîëüçîâàíèÿ ìîäàëüíûõ ãëàãîëîâ could, would, might, êîòîðûå â ñîñòàâå íàèáîëåå ðàñïðîñòðàíåííûõ ãðàììàòè÷åñêèõ êîíТаблица 4 Тактика дистанцирования (посредством модальных глаголов) Are you staying with us…? I thought – what about... I wondered if you had... 21 Distancing Modals could, would, might functions question formulae, conditional subjunctive e.g.: request, offer, inquiry, suggestion verbal structures expressions expressions advice, order/instruction, desire, opinion 22 Ëåêöèÿ ¹ 2 ñòðóêöèé îñîáåííî ÷àñòî èñïîëüçóþòñÿ â ðàññìàòðèâàåìûõ «ñòðàòåãè÷åñêèõ» öåëÿõ. Áðèòàíöû âûäåëÿþò êàê îñîáóþ ñôåðó ôóíêöèîíèðîâàíèÿ ýòèõ ãëàãîëîâ ìåæëè÷íîñòíîå îáùåíèå (interpersonal use): ñ ïîìîùüþ could, would, might âûðàæàþòñÿ ðàçëè÷íîãî ðîäà ïðîñüáû, âîïðîñû, ïðåäëîæåíèÿ, ìíåíèÿ, ïîæåëàíèÿ è ïð., ïðèîáðåòàþùèå ïðè ýòîì ðàçëè÷íûå îòòåíêè âåæëèâîãî çâó÷àíèÿ. Âûñòóïàÿ â ðîëè äèñòàíöèðóþùèõ ñðåäñòâ, ïîçâîëÿþùèõ èçáåæàòü ïðÿìîëèíåéíîñòè âûñêàçûâàíèÿ, îíè âõîäÿò â öåëûé ðÿä çàñòûâøèõ ôîðìóë âåæëèâîñòè â âèäå óñòîé÷èâûõ êîíñòðóêöèé – âîïðîñèòåëüíûõ, óñëîâíûõ – ñîîòâåòñòâåííî ïðèñóùèì èì îòòåíêàì çíà÷åíèÿ âåðîÿòíîñòè, âîçìîæíîñòè, ïðåäïî÷òåíèÿ, æåëàíèÿ è äð. Îáðàòèìñÿ ê íåêîòîðûì ïðèìåðàì. (Òàáë. 5) Âîïðîñèòåëüíûå êîíñòðóêöèè ñ ãëàãîëàìè could, would, might – òðàäèöèîííûå ñïîñîáû âûðàæåíèÿ âåæëèâîé ïðîñüáû, ïðåäëîæåíèÿ èëè ìíåíèÿ, êðèòè÷åñêîãî çàìå÷àíèÿ, êîòîðûå èíà÷å ìîãóò ïðîçâó÷àòü áîëåå èìïåðàòèâíî èëè êàòåãîðè÷íî. Таблица 5 Техника использования модальных глаголов в устойчивых конструкциях Set Question Formulae and Verbal Structures Functions Indirect Could/would you lend me your printer? invitation Would you care to follow me upstairs? Might it be alright to do it this opinion way? inquiry You wouldn’t go to Hull by any chance? When would that have taken inquiry place? offer/suggestion Suppose we might give them a lift? criticism/advice You could/might warn them in advance. I’d think we might spend a night opinion/offer here. opinion I’d have thought he wasn’t good at chess. opinion/criticism I’d say this is not the best way to treat cats. desire/suggestion I’d like/prefer to make a brief review of... request formulae Direct Will you lend me your printer? Do you care to follow me upstairs? Is it alright to do it this way? You’re not going to Hull by any chance? When did it take place? Let’s give them a lift. You should/must warn them in advance. I think we’ll spend a night here. He won? I thought he wasn’t good at chess. I say, this is not the best way to treat cats. I want (you) to make a brief review of... Ñòðàòåãèè äèñòàíöèðîâàíèÿ 23 Ñð: Could/would you do that for me? – Will you do that for me? Suppose we could/might find another solution? – We should find another solution. Might it be an idea to have a break right now? – Let’s have a break. You might try the new diet, it works miracles. – Try the new diet. You could/might tell me before reading my notes. – You shouldn’t read my notes. Ãëàãîëû â óñëîâíîì íàêëîíåíèè íåçàìåíèìû äëÿ ðàçëè÷íîãî ðîäà ðàññïðîñîâ è íàâåäåíèÿ ñïðàâîê, òàê êàê ìîãóò ïðèäàâàòü âîïðîñàì òàêòè÷íîå íåíàâÿç÷èâîå çâó÷àíèå, äåëàÿ èõ ìåíåå îïðåäåëåííûìè. Ñð: Would you be able to complete this work by noon? (indefinite inquiry) Will you be able to complete this work by noon? (definite inquiry). Èëè æå: “You wouldn’t go to the university canteen by any chance? I’ve left my watch somewhere there.” – “Where exactly could you leave it?” Ñð.: “Are you going to the university canteen?..” – “Where exactly did you leave it?”) Èñïîëüçîâàíèå â óñëîâíîì íàêëîíåíèè ìîäàëüíûõ ìîäèôèêàòîðîâ – ñî÷åòàíèé ñ ãëàãîëàìè ãîâîðåíèÿ / ìûøëåíèÿ (òèïà say, call, think) è ãëàãîëàìè ïðåäïî÷òåíèÿ (òèïà like/prefer) òàêæå ñîñòàâëÿåò îñíîâó íåêîòîðûõ îáùåïðèíÿòûõ ôîðìóë, íàïðèìåð ïðåäëîæåíèÿ, ïðèãëàøåíèÿ, (ïî)æåëàíèÿ: Would you like some tea? Would you like to join us? I’d prefer...; â òàêèõ ãëàãîëüíûõ êîíñòðóêöèÿõ (I’d like to .../I’d say.../I’d think...) îí ìîæåò ïðèäàòü îòòåíîê âåæëèâîñòè âûðàæàåìûì íàìåðåíèÿì è ìíåíèÿì, ïðåäëîæåíèÿì è ïðîñüáàì, ïîñêîëüêó ïðè ýòîì íåíàâÿç÷èâàÿ ôîðìà ïðåäîñòàâëÿåò ñëóøàþùåìó âîçìîæíîñòü âûáîðà, ñòàâÿ ïîä ñîìíåíèå åãî æåëàíèå ñîâåðøèòü ïðåäëàãàåìîå äåéñòâèå. Òåõíèêà èñïîëüçîâàíèÿ ìîäàëüíûõ ãëàãîëîâ â êîíñòðóêöèÿõ óñëîâíîãî íàêëîíåíèÿ Ñëåäóþùèé áëîê ïðèìåðîâ èëëþñòðèðóåò âîçìîæíîñòè óïîòðåáëåíèÿ êîíñòðóêöèé óñëîâíîãî íàêëîíåíèÿ â àíàëîãè÷íûõ ñòðàòåãè÷åñêèõ öåëÿõ. (Òàáë. 6) Ìîäàëüíûå ãëàãîëû â êîíñòðóêöèÿõ ñ if òàêæå èñïîëüçóþòñÿ â êà÷åñòâå ôîðìóë âåæëèâîãî âîïðîñà, ïðåäëîæåíèÿ, ñîâåòà, ïðèêàçà: I wonder if you might be interested in.../could possibly.../would like to...? 24 Ëåêöèÿ ¹ 2 If I were you I’d...; It would be better if...; If you would... You might see if (professor Smith is free this afternoon) è ò.ä. Ãëàãîëû could è might (áîëåå âåæëèâûå, ÷åì can, may) ÷àñòî óïîòðåáëÿþòñÿ, êîãäà íåîáõîäèìî ñïðîñèòü ðàçðåøåíèÿ èëè âûñêàçàòü ïðåäëîæåíèå; íàèáîëåå òàêòè÷íî òàêèå âîïðîñû çâó÷àò â êîíñòðóêöèÿõ ñ if, ïîòîìó ÷òî çàðàíåå ïðåäïîëàãàþò – õîòü è ÷èñòî ôîðìàëüíî – ïîòåíöèàëüíóþ âîçìîæíîñòü âûáîðà – ñîãëàñèòüñÿ èëè îòêëîíèòü ïðåäëàãàåìîå. Ñð.: Could I ask you something if you’re not too busy? I wonder if I might have some more tea? Óñëîâíûå ïðåäëîæåíèÿ òàêîãî ðîäà ìîãóò áûòü î÷åíü óäîáíû äëÿ ïðîñÿùåãî èëè ïðåäëàãàþùåãî, ïîñêîëüêó ïîçâîëÿþò ñôîðìóëèðîâàòü âîïðîñ â äîñòàòî÷íîé ìåðå óêëîí÷èâî, ÷òîáû âîçìîæíûé îòêàç íå ïðîçâó÷àë ãðóáî, à ïðåäëàãàåìàÿ ïîìîùü èëè óñëóãà íå áûëè íàâÿç÷èâû: It would be really nice if you could, but don’t worry if you don’t have time...; I could go and see him if that would help. Ðåêîìåíäàöèè è ïîæåëàíèÿ, âîïðîñû ëè÷íîãî õàðàêòåðà è îòêàçû â ïðîñüáàõ òàêæå çâó÷àò áîëåå òàêòè÷íî â óñëîâíîì íàêëîíåíèè: I’d rather you...; I wish you would...; I’d rather not answer that if you don’t mind; I’d really like to say yes/ help, but...) è äð. Ñëåäóåò îòìåòèòü, ÷òî êîíñòðóêöèè ñ could è would íåðåäêî ïåðåâîäÿòñÿ äîñëîâíî ïðè ïîìîùè îáîðîòîâ ñ áû èëè ëè (ñð. íå ìîãëè áû âû, íå óãîäíî ëè âàì?). Âîçíèêàþùèé ýôôåêò ïîâûøåííîé ôîðìàëüíîñòè, íàïðèìåð, ïðè ïåðåâîäå òèïè÷íûõ äëÿ àíãëèéñêîãî Таблица 6 Conditional Expressions Functions Indirect I wonder if you might be interested in...? advice formulae If I were you I’d join up with this firm. suggestion/advice It would be better if he went there alone. order/instruction If you would stand over there? I’d rather you didn’t refer to order/refusing those data. I wish you wouldn’t disclose permission those facts. enquiry/offer Direct I wonder if you are interested in…? You should join up with this firm. Let him/He should go there alone. Will you stand over there? Don’t refer to those data. You mustn’t /shouldn’t do that… Ñòðàòåãèè äèñòàíöèðîâàíèÿ 25 Таблица 7 Стратегия дистанцирования Стратегия Дистанцирование òàêòèêè ñìåùåíèå âðåìåííîãî ïëàíà èñïîëüçîâàíèå ìîäàëüíûõ ãëàãîëîâ òåõíèêè ñìåùåíèå â ïðîøëîå èëè áóäóùåå èñïîëüçîâàíèå ìîäàëüíûõ ãëàãîëîâ â óñòîé÷èâûõ êîíñòðóêöèÿõ èñïîëüçîâàíèå ïðîäîëæåííîãî âðåìåíè èñïîëüçîâàíèå ìîäàëüíûõ ãëàãîëîâ ñ óñëîâíûì íàêëîíåíèåì óðîêà ôîðìóë ïîáóæäåíèÿ, òàêèõ, êàê Would you like to read it, Jane? ïðîèçâîäèò âåñüìà ñòðàííîå âïå÷àòëåíèå. Áîëåå êîððåêòíûì ïðåäñòàâëÿåòñÿ ïîäáîð ñîâðåìåííûõ ðå÷åâûõ ôîðìóë, ïåðåäàþùèõ ïðàãìàòè÷åñêîå çíà÷åíèå âûñêàçûâàíèÿ â çàâèñèìîñòè îò êîíòåêñòà (ñð. Äæåéí, ïðî÷òè(òå) ýòî, ïîæàëóéñòà). Âåæëèâàÿ ïðîñüáà â ïîäîáíûõ ñëó÷àÿõ âïîëíå àäåêâàòíî ïåðåäàåòñÿ ïîâåëèòåëüíûì íàêëîíåíèåì, ñìÿã÷åííûì ìîäèôèêàòîðîì ïîæàëóéñòà, ðîëü êîòîðîãî ìîæíî òðàêòîâàòü ïî àíàëîãèè ñ could è would, ÷òî åùå ðàç ñâèäåòåëüñòâóåò î ðàçëè÷èè ñïîñîáîâ âûðàæåíèÿ ïîáóæäåíèÿ â ðóññêîì è àíãëèéñêîì ÿçûêàõ. Ðàññìîòðåííûå òàêòèêè îáîáùåííî ìîæíî ïðåäñòàâèòü ñëåäóþùèì îáðàçîì: (Òàáë. 7) Çàäàíèÿ äëÿ ñàìîêîíòðîëÿ 1. Render from Russian into English. Different polite variants could be possible. 1. Âû áóäåòå õîäèòü íà ëåêöèè ïðîôåññîðà Õîëëà? 2. ß äóìàþ, îíè áóäóò ïîëåçíû äëÿ âàøåãî ïðîåêòà. 3. Êàêèå ëåêöèè îí áóäåò ÷èòàòü? 4. ß õî÷ó ïðîñèòü åãî ïðî÷èòàòü êóðñ ïî ìåæêóëüòóðíîìó îáùåíèþ. 5. À ìîè êîëëåãè ìîãóò òàêæå ïðèñóòñòâîâàòü? 6. Ñêîëüêî èìåííî? 7. Äóìàþ, ÷åëîâåê ïÿòü. 8. Íàäåþñü, âû ïîìîæåòå íàì â âîïðîñàõ îïëàòû è äîêóìåíòàöèè? 9. Äà, êîíå÷íî. Îðãàíèçàöèîííûé âçíîñ ñîñòàâëÿåò 20$. 10. È âû äîëæíû ïðèíåñòè ñâîè ôîòîãðàôèè äëÿ äîêóìåíòîâ. 26 Ëåêöèÿ ¹ 2 2. Render from Russian into English. Different polite variants could be possible. 1. Âû íå ñêàæåòå, ãäå èíñòèòóòñêèé íàó÷íûé öåíòð? 2. Äà îí ïðÿìî ïåðåä âàìè. 3. Ó âàñ åñòü êíèãè èç ñîáðàíèÿ ïðîôåññîðà Äæåéìñà ïî èñòîðèè Áðèòàíèè? 4. Êàêîé èìåííî òîì âàì íóæåí? 5. ß òî÷íî íå çíàþ, äàéòå ìíå êàêîé-íèáóäü òîì ïî ñðåäíåâåêîâüþ. 6. Ïîñìîòðèòå ïîñëåäíèé, â êîòîðîì åñòü ïîëíîå ñîäåðæàíèå. 7. Ýòî ïîñëåäíåå èçäàíèå? ß äóìàë îíî áîëåå ïîëíîå. 8. Òîãäà ëó÷øå ïîèùèòå ñïåöèàëüíûé âûïóñê ïî ñðåäíèì âåêàì. 9. Äóìàþ, âû íàéäåòå òàì âñå, ÷òî âàì íóæíî. 10. Âàì íàäî áû ïîñìîòðåòü ðàáîòû ðàçíûõ àâòîðîâ. Ñòðàòåãèè äèñòàíöèðîâàíèÿ 27 Ëåêöèÿ 3. Ñòðàòåãèè íàìåêà Ñòðàòåãèÿ íàì¸êà ÿâëÿåòñÿ õàðàêòåðíîé ÷åðòîé ýìîòèâíîé êîììóíèêàöèè. Ýìîòèâíîñòü íàìè ðàññìàòðèâàåòñÿ êàê ñîçíàòåëüíàÿ êîíòðîëèðóåìàÿ äåìîíñòðàöèÿ ýìîöèîíàëüíîãî îòíîøåíèÿ. Äëÿ íîñèòåëåé áðèòàíñêîé è àìåðèêàíñêîé êóëüòóð íå õàðàêòåðíî ïðåäàâàòüñÿ ýìîöèÿì, – ñîãëàñíî íåïèñàíûì ïðàâèëàì ñëåäóåò ñêðûâàòü ñîáñòâåííûå ÷óâñòâà, ïåðåêëþ÷àÿ âíèìàíèå íà ÷óâñòâà äðóãèõ. Ýìîöèîíàëüíàÿ ñäåðæàííîñòü áðèòàíöåâ, êàê èçâåñòíî, êîðåíèòñÿ â òðàäèöèÿõ ïðîòåñòàíòñêîãî âîñïèòàíèÿ, ïðåäïèñûâàþùèõ âîçäåðæèâàòüñÿ îò îòêðûòîãî ïðîÿâëåíèÿ ýìîöèé ïðàêòè÷åñêè âî âñåõ æèçíåííûõ ñèòóàöèÿõ (çà èñêëþ÷åíèåì ðàçâå ÷òî ïîõîðîí). Ó àìåðèêàíöåâ ýìîöèîíàëüíîå ïîâåäåíèå ñâÿçûâàåòñÿ, ïðåæäå âñåãî, ñ íåðàöèîíàëüíîñòüþ, ñóáúåêòèâíîñòüþ, íåñîáðàííîñòüþ è äðóãèìè íåãàòèâíûìè õàðàêòåðèñòèêàìè. Ëþáîïûòíî, ÷òî íåîäîáðèòåëüíîå îòíîøåíèå ê îòêðûòîìó ïðîÿâëåíèþ ýìîöèé ïðîñëåæèâàåòñÿ è íà ÿçûêîâîì óðîâíå: íàïðèìåð, òàêèå ïðèëàãàòåëüíûå, êàê emotional, demonstrative, excitable èìåþò íåãàòèâíûé îòòåíîê çíà÷åíèÿ, à áîëüøèíñòâî àíãëèéñêèõ ãëàãîëîâ ýìîöèé – ãëàãîëû ñîñòîÿíèÿ, à íå äåéñòâèÿ. Äëÿ ðîññèÿí, íàïðîòèâ, õàðàêòåðåí îòêðîâåííûé è ãëóáîêèé ðàçãîâîð, ïðåäïîëàãàþùèé âûñîêóþ ñòåïåíü ýìîöèîíàëüíîé âîâëå÷åííîñòè ÷åëîâåêà. È ïîýòîìó âïîëíå çàêîíîìåðíî, ÷òî åãî ñîçíàòåëüíîå è äåÿòåëüíîå ó÷àñòèå ïåðåäàåòñÿ øèðîêî ðàñïðîñòðàíåííûìè â ðóññêîì ÿçûêå «àêòèâíûìè» ãëàãîëàìè ýìîöèé (íàïðèìåð, ðàäîâàòüñÿ, ãðóñòèòü, òîñêîâàòü, âîëíîâàòüñÿ, çëèòüñÿ), ïîñêîëüêó â ðóññêîé êóëüòóðå, êàê ñïðàâåäëèâî îòìå÷àåò À. Âåæáèöêàÿ, âåðáàëüíîå âûðàæåíèå ýìîöèé – îäíà èç îñíîâíûõ ôóíêöèé ðå÷è. Ïðàêòèêà îáùåíèÿ ïîêàçûâàåò, ÷òî èñòèííàÿ ýìîöèîíàëüíîñòü ïðåäñòàâëÿåò óãðîçó ãëàäêîìó òå÷åíèþ ðàçãîâîðà è áåñêîíôëèêòíîé àòìîñôåðå, ñîõðàíåíèå êîòîðîé ÿâëÿåòñÿ îñíîâíîé öåëüþ ïðè ñòðàòåãè÷åñêîì âûðàæåíèè ýìîöèé. Íà ðå÷åâîì óðîâíå ýòî îòðàæàåòñÿ â óïîòðåáëåíèè äâóõ ñòðàòåãè÷åñêèõ ïðèåìîâ understatement è overstatement, ïðèçâàííûõ ñïîñîáñòâîâàòü ñëîâåñíîìó ïðåóìåíüøåíèþ èëè ïðåóâåëè÷åíèþ çíà÷èìîñòè ïðîèñõîäÿùåãî. Âîçíèêàþùàÿ ïðè ýòîì äâîéñòâåííîñòü êîììóíèêàòèâíîãî ïîâåäåíèÿ áðèòàíöåâ è àìåðèêàíöåâ, ñ õàðàêòåðíîé äëÿ íèõ âíóòðåííåé îòñòðàíåííîñòüþ ïðè âíåøíåé äåìîíñòðàöèè ýìîöèé, çàêëþ÷àåò â ñåáå ëèøü êàæóùååñÿ ïðîòèâîðå÷èå.  äåéñòâèòåëüíîñòè è understatement, 28 Ëåêöèÿ ¹ 3 è overstatement îñíîâàíû íà ÷èñòî ôîðìàëüíîì (ðèòóàëüíîì) îáðàùåíèè ê îïðåäåëåííîìó íàáîðó ýêñïðåññèâíûõ ÿçûêîâûõ ñðåäñòâ, êîòîðûå â ðåçóëüòàòå ÷àñòîãî èñïîëüçîâàíèÿ ïðåâðàòèëèñü áîëüøåé ÷àñòüþ â äåñåìàíòèçèðîâàííûå ôîðìóëû. Ñòðàòåãèÿ íàì¸êà, ðàññìàòðèâàåìàÿ â äàííîé ëåêöèè, îñíîâàíà íà èñïîëüçîâàíèè ïåðâîãî ïðèåìà. Ðàçëè÷íûå ñïîñîáû ïðåóìåíüøåíèÿ, òðàäèöèîííî ñâÿçàííûå ñ ïðàâèëàìè âåäåíèÿ small talk, ïîëüçóþòñÿ øèðîêîé ïîïóëÿðíîñòüþ ñðåäè áðèòàíöåâ è âåñüìà îãðàíè÷åííîé – ñðåäè àìåðèêàíöåâ, áîëåå öåëåóñòðåìëåííûõ è ñêëîííûõ âîñïðèíèìàòü small talk êàê ïóñòóþ ôîðìàëüíîñòü è òðàòó âðåìåíè. Ïðåóìåíüøåíèå îáû÷íî èìååò ìåñòî ïðè îáìåíå ìíåíèÿìè è âïå÷àòëåíèÿìè, âûðàæåíèè (êðèòè÷åñêîé) îöåíêè èëè ñâîåãî îòíîøåíèÿ ê ïðåäìåòó îáñóæäåíèÿ. Äëÿ ñìÿã÷åíèÿ ðåçêîñòè âûñêàçûâàåìîãî àíãëîãîâîðÿùèå ñîáåñåäíèêè èñïîëüçóþò áîëüøîå êîëè÷åñòâî ðàçíîãî ðîäà äîïóùåíèé è íåäîìîëâîê, «ëæè âî áëàãî», òàêèì îáðàçîì óäåðæèâàÿ ðàçãîâîð â ðóñëå îáùåïðèíÿòûõ íîðì ýìîöèîíàëüíî-íåéòðàëüíîãî îáùåíèÿ. Ïîìèìî ôóíêöèè íåéòðàëèçîâûâàòü ýìîöèè ãîâîðÿùåãî ïî îòíîøåíèþ ê âûñêàçûâàíèþ, îáðàùåíèå ê ñòðàòåãèè íàì¸êà, èíà÷å íàçûâàåìîé understatement, ñëóæèò îïÿòü-òàêè âñå òîé æå öåëè: ïðàâèëüíî ðàññòàâëÿòü íåîáõîäèìûå àêöåíòû, ÷òîáû ñäåëàòü ïðîöåññ îáùåíèÿ âåæëèâî-íåïðèíóæäåííûì. Ñëåäóåò ïðè ýòîì îòìåòèòü, ÷òî ââèäó íàëè÷èÿ ýëåìåíòà íåèñêðåííîñòè (ïîñêîëüêó ïî ñâîåé ñóòè understatement – ýòî ïðåóìåíüøåíèå çíà÷èìîñòè èëè çíà÷èòåëüíîñòè ñîîáùàåìîãî, êîãäà ãîâîðèòñÿ ìåíüøå, ÷åì ïîäðàçóìåâàåòñÿ) ñåìàíòè÷åñêîå çíà÷åíèå understatement ðàñõîäèòñÿ ñ ïðàãìàòè÷åñêèì. Îáðàùåíèå ê äàííîé ñòðàòåãèè âûçâàíî ñòðåìëåíèåì ïðîäåìîíñòðèðîâàòü áåðåæíî-óâàæèòåëüíîå îòíîøåíèå ê ÷óâñòâàì ñîáåñåäíèêà, è îáùåíèå â öåëîì îñíîâàíî íà âïîëíå èñêðåííåì è îáîþäíîì æåëàíèè êîììóíèêàíòîâ: «ß õî÷ó, ÷òîáû (òû äóìàë, ÷òî) âñå áûëî ÎÊ», ïîýòîìó â ïðàãìàòè÷åñêîì àñïåêòå âûñêàçûâàíèÿ, ñîäåðæàùèå understatement, íå ìîãóò ñ÷èòàòüñÿ ëîæíûìè. Îñíîâíàÿ öåëü ýòîé àíòèêîíôëèêòíîé ñòðàòåãèè – ðåãóëèðîâàòü ñòåïåíü ýìîöèîíàëüíîãî âîçäåéñòâèÿ íà ñîáåñåäíèêà, ñãëàæèâàÿ «îñòðûå óãëû» ïîñðåäñòâîì ñíèæåíèÿ çíà÷èìîñòè âûñêàçûâàíèÿ, îñîáåííî â ýìîòèâíûõ ðå÷åâûõ àêòàõ, ïðè ïîìîùè ðàçëè÷íîãî ðîäà äîïóùåíèé è ïðåäïîëîæåíèé. Ñîîòâåòñòâåííî, íåîáõîäèìîñòü îáðàùàòüñÿ ê ýòîé ñòðàòåãèè âîçíèêàåò, êîãäà ðå÷ü èäåò ëèáî î ÷åì-òî ñóãóáî ëè÷íîì, òðåáóþùåì äåëèêàòíîãî îáõîæäåíèÿ (êàê, íàïðèìåð, íåîáõîäèìîñòü ïîäåëèòüñÿ ñâîèìè ïå- Ñòðàòåãèè íàìåêà 29 Таблица 1 Тактика регуляции значимости высказывания Understatement through Downtoning Information Downtoning Devices minimizing adverbs and assertive words fillers Functions verbs of intention also with a) fillers b) vbs of thinking e.g.: explanations, complaints, (negative) opinions, apologies ðåæèâàíèÿìè èëè âïå÷àòëåíèÿìè, ñîîáùåíèå ïå÷àëüíûõ èçâåñòèé), ëèáî æå î ÷åì-òî íåïðèÿòíîì (ñâÿçàííîì, íàïðèìåð, ñ âûðàæåíèåì íåãàòèâíîãî îòíîøåíèÿ, æàëîáû).  òàêèõ ñèòóàöèÿõ öåëüþ ÿâëÿåòñÿ ïîääåðæèâàòü äðóæåëþáíî-áåçîáèäíóþ áåñåäó, âñÿ÷åñêè èçáåãàÿ ëþáûõ íåëîâêîñòåé è øîêèðóþùèõ ýôôåêòîâ, ïîòåíöèàëüíî çàëîæåííûõ â ñîîáùåíèè. Íà óðîâíå ðå÷è æåëàåìûé ðåçóëüòàò äîñòèãàåòñÿ ïðè ïîìîùè öåëåíàïðàâëåííîãî èñïîëüçîâàíèÿ ìîäàëüíûõ ìîäèôèêàòîðîâ è ðÿäà äðóãèõ ëåêñèêî-ñèíòàêñè÷åñêèõ ñòðóêòóð. Îáðàòèìñÿ ê ðàññìîòðåíèþ íåêîòîðûõ êîíêðåòíûõ òàêòèê ïðåóìåíüøåíèÿ. (Òàáë. 1) Ïðåóìåíüøåíèå çíà÷èìîñòè âûñêàçûâàíèÿ (downtoning), êàê è ñìÿã÷åíèå, îáû÷íî íàáëþäàåòñÿ ïðè îáìåíå ìíåíèÿìè, âûðàæåíèè (êðèòè÷åñêîé) îöåíêè èëè ñâîåãî îòíîøåíèÿ ê îáñóæäàåìîìó ïðåäìåòó, êîãäà ñ ïîìîùüþ ýìîöèîíàëüíî íåéòðàëüíûõ ôðàç ðàçãîâîð íåîáõîäèìî óäåðæèâàòü â ðóñëå îáùåïðèíÿòûõ íîðì âåæëèâîãî îáùåíèÿ. Ïðèäàòü ñâîèì ñëîâàì ëåãêîâåñíîå çâó÷àíèå ìîæíî ïðè ïîìîùè ðàçëè÷íûõ ñðåäñòâ, ðåãóëèðóþùèõ ñòåïåíü âîçäåéñòâèÿ âûñêàçûâàíèÿ íà àäðåñàòà. Ðàññìîòðèì íåêîòîðûå ðàñïðîñòðàíåííûå ñïîñîáû. (Òàáë. 2) Таблица 2 Техника минимизации Minimizing Adverbs Functions criticising request excuse apology attitude Understatement Statement The room is a little / a bit overcrowded. Could I make a very brief announcement? Just a minute. I’ll be back in a moment. It was just a slip of the tongue. The news somewhat shocked me. The room is overcrowded. Can I make an announcement? Wait a little. I’ll be back soon. It was a slip of the tongue. The news shocked me. 30 Ëåêöèÿ ¹ 3 Âåñîìîñòü ôðàçû, ñòåïåíü å¸ âîçäåéñòâèÿ íà ñëóøàòåëÿ ìîæíî ðåãóëèðîâàòü ïîñðåäñòâîì ìèíèìèçàòîðîâ: just, only, a bit / a little, very, à òàêæå ðàçëè÷íûõ ìîäèôèêàòîðîâ ñòåïåíè (assertive words) òèïà somehow, somewhat, êîòîðûå ïîìîãàþò êàê áû ñâåñòè íà íåò íåæåëàòåëüíûå ýìîöèè, íàïðèìåð, ïðè íåîáõîäèìîñòè îïðàâäûâàòüñÿ èëè èçâèíÿòüñÿ, ñãëàäèòü îñòðîòó êðèòèêè, ñêðûòü íåïðèÿçíü: She could give a little more attention to details. I know, it was just a sketch and she is only making her first steps in drawing, but she seems a bit slow, I’d say. Èëè æå: His coming uninvited somehow embarrassed the hosts. There was something of an intrusion in this visit. Ðàññìàòðèâàåìàÿ òåõíèêà ÷àñòî èñïîëüçóåòñÿ â êîíòåêñòå îáîçíà÷åíèÿ íåôîðìàëüíîãî âðåìåíè (ñð. ãë. 1) â ñî÷åòàíèè ñ íàçâàíèÿìè ìèíèìàëüíûõ îòðåçêîâ òèïà ñåêóíäà, ìîìåíò è ïð., íàïðèìåð: Just a moment, please, ñîçäàâàÿ ïðè òàêîì óïîòðåáëåíèè ýôôåêò äîïîëíèòåëüíîãî ïðåóìåíüøåíèÿ. Àíàëîãè÷íûå ñðåäñòâà èìåþùèåñÿ â ðóññêîì ÿçûêå, êàê ïðàâèëî, èñïîëüçóþòñÿ ïðè íåîáõîäèìîñòè äàâàòü îáúÿñíåíèÿ, îïðàâäûâàòüñÿ èëè èçâèíÿòüñÿ è ñðàâíèòåëüíî ðåäêî – ïðè âûðàæåíèè êðèòè÷åñêîé îöåíêè. (Òàáë. 3) Òåõíèêà ñíèæåíèÿ îïðåäåëåííîñòè ïîçâîëÿåò ãîâîðÿùåìó äîñòè÷ü âûñîêîé ñòåïåíè íåîäíîçíà÷íîñòè âûðàæåíèÿ íàìåðåíèÿ ïîñðåäñòâîì ðàçíîîáðàçíûõ âåðáàëüíûõ äîïóùåíèé è ïðåäïîëîæåíèé; ïðè ýòîì íåçàìåíèìûìè «ðåãóëÿòîðàìè» çíà÷èòåëüíîñòè âûñêàçûâàíèé ÿâëÿþòñÿ òàê íàçûâàåìûå äåæóðíûå ñëîТаблица 3 Техника снижения определенности Fillers and Verbs of Intention Functions apology Understatement I’ve got a kind of an apology to make. Statement I want to apologise. There’s a sort of misunderstanding. There is a misunderstanding. It was out of place. explanations It was more or less out of place. We tend to overlook the importance of We often overlook it. expressing tests. (negative) I am inclined to feel that it is important. I feel that it is important. opinions I sort of think it could be better if you It could be better if you... quit. giving Ñòðàòåãèè íàìåêà 31 âà – çàïîëíèòåëè ïàóç (fillers) òèïà kind of, sort of, so to speak, more or less è ïð., äåëàþùèå ðå÷ü ìåíåå îïðåäåëåííîé è ðåçêîé è ïðè íåîáõîäèìîñòè äîïîëíèòåëüíî ñìÿã÷àþùåå (íåãàòèâíîå) îòíîøåíèå: I must apologise. – I’ve got a sort of a confession to make. I’ve got a bit of a problem. You see, I kind of borrowed your son’s car, so to speak, it worked more or less all right but then suddenly the engine sort of ceased to work. (Àðñåíàë ýòèõ ñðåäñòâ â àíãëèéñêîì ÿçûêå äîñòàòî÷íî âåëèê è ðàçíîîáðàçåí, êàê ðàçíîîáðàçíû è âûïîëíÿåìûå èìè ôóíêöèè, êîòîðûå îòíþäü íå îãðàíè÷èâàþòñÿ ñìÿã÷åíèåì.) Ýòîé æå öåëè ìîãóò ñëóæèòü è ìîäèôèêàòîðû ñ ãëàãîëàìè íàìåðåíèÿ òèïà to be inclined, to tend, to intend, êîòîðûå óïîòðåáëÿþòñÿ òàêæå è â ñî÷åòàíèè ñ ãëàãîëàìè ìûøëåíèÿ è çíà÷èòåëüíî ñíèæàþò ðåçêîñòü âûñêàçûâàåìîãî ìíåíèÿ, ïåðåâîäÿ áåñåäó â ìåíåå ðåàëüíóþ ïëîñêîñòü òåíäåíöèé è ñêëîííîñòåé, ñð.: He criticises everyone lately. – He tends to be rather critically minded lately. Your latest report is incomplete. – I’m inclined to think that your latest report is somewhat incomplete. You never attend our staff meetings. – You tend to miss our staff meetings. The principal will ask you to come and see him after classes. – The principal is inclined to ask you to come and see him after classes.  òàêèõ ñëó÷àÿõ òàêæå èñïîëüçóþòñÿ «çàïîëíèòåëè ïàóç» – ñ öåëüþ óñèëåíèÿ ñìÿã÷àþùåãî ýôôåêòà: I’m sort of inclined to think...; I kind of intend to feel...: In fact/ actually, I sort of think/ feel something’s missing ... I mean, it looks like that, so to speak.  ðóññêîì ÿçûêå èìååòñÿ «áîãàòîå ïîëå íåîïðåäåëåííîñòè»1, ïîçâîëÿþùåå ñîñòàâèòü íàáîð àíàëîãè÷íûõ ñðåäñòâ, òàê æå ñïîñîáíûõ ïðè íåîáõîäèìîñòè ïðåóìåíüøàòü çíà÷åíèå âûñêàçûâàåìîãî (ñð. ß íåìíîãî óñòàë; îíà áûëà ñëåãêà óäèâëåíà; ìû ñêëîííû ñ÷èòàòü, ÷òî ýòî ñâîåãî ðîäà øóòêà) è ïð., íå ãîâîðÿ î ñëîâàõïàðàçèòàõ, ñòîëü ñèëüíî çàñîðÿþùèõ ðîññèéñêóþ ðå÷ü â ïîñëåäíåå âðåìÿ. Ñëåäóåò îäíàêî îòìåòèòü, ÷òî ÷àñòîòíîñòü îáðàùåíèÿ ê ïîäîáíûì ñðåäñòâàì âî ìíîãîì îáóñëîâëèâàåòñÿ ñèòóàöè1 Ïî ñðàâíåíèþ ñî ìíîãèìè åâðîïåéñêèìè ÿçûêàìè íà ìåñòå îäíîãî ðàçðÿäà íåîïðåäåëåííûõ ìåñòîèìåíèé â ðóññêîì èìååòñÿ òðè: íà -òî, -íèáóäü è êîå-, åñëè íå ÷åòûðå, ó÷èòûâàÿ íåêèé, íåêòî (Ïàäó÷åâà 1997:23). 32 Ëåêöèÿ ¹ 3 Таблица 4 Тактика использования отрицания как намёка Understatement through Negation Types of Negation explicit, also with: implicit with: Functions double with: adj. like little/ few words of negative e.g.(negative) attitude, meaning criticism, dislike, transferred negation negative adverbs (also with prefixes/ statement of opinion, suffixes) disagreeing, offer non-assertive words vbs. fail, lack etc. adj., adv., vbs., prepositions degree adverbs åé (òî÷íåå, ñòåïåíüþ å¸ «íåïðèÿòíîñòè») èëè ïñèõîëîãè÷åñêèìè îñîáåííîñòÿìè êîììóíèêàíòîâ è «ëè÷íûì» ôàêòîðîì (ñìóùåíèÿ, çàæàòîñòè, ðàñêîâàííîñòè è ïð.), òîãäà êàê äëÿ áðèòàíöà understatement – ýòî ñâîåãî ðîäà íîðìà ðå÷åâîãî ïîâåäåíèÿ (íàïîìíèì, ÷òî áîëåå ïðÿìîëèíåéíûì àìåðèêàíöàì ýòî ñâîéñòâåííî â ìåíüøåé ñòåïåíè). (Òàáë. 4) Îòðèöàíèå êàê ñïîñîá óìåíüøåíèÿ çíà÷èìîñòè âûñêàçûâàíèÿ âñòðå÷àåòñÿ â îñíîâíîì â êîíñòðóêöèÿõ òðåõ òèïîâ: ïðÿìîå, ñêðûòîå è äâîéíîå. Ïðÿìîå îòðèöàíèå, êàê ïðàâèëî, îòíîñèòñÿ ê ãëàãîëó èëè ïåðåíåñåíî íà ãëàãîë ìûøëåíèÿ (transferred negation), èëè æå âûðàæàåòñÿ ñëîâàìè íåîïðåäåëåííîãî çíà÷åíèÿ (non-assertive words). Ñêðûòîå îòðèöàíèå èìååò ìåñòî â óòâåðäèòåëüíûõ ïðåäëîæåíèÿõ ñ íàðå÷èÿìè íåãàòèâíîãî èëè ìèíèìèçèðóþùåãî çíà÷åíèÿ èëè ãëàãîëàìè è ïðè÷àñòèÿìè ñîîòâåòñòâóþùåãî çíà÷åíèÿ. Äâîéíîå îòðèöàíèå âîçíèêàåò, êîãäà ñëîâà íåãàòèâíîãî çíà÷åíèÿ óïîòðåáëÿþòñÿ â îòðèöàòåëüíîì ïðåäëîæåíèè. Ê îòðèöàíèþ êàê ê òàêòèêå ïðåóìåíüøåíèÿ çíà÷èìîñòè (ñìÿã÷åíèÿ) îáû÷íî îáðàùàþòñÿ, êîãäà íåîáõîäèìî îñëàáèòü ýìîöèîíàëüíîå âîçäåéñòâèå ñòèëèñòè÷åñêè îêðàøåííûõ ñëîâ, âûðàæàþùèõ (êðèòè÷íîå) îòíîøåíèå, íåñîãëàñèå, íåïðèÿçíü è ïð. Ðàññìîòðèì âîçìîæíîñòè ðåàëèçàöèè äàííîé òàêòèêè ïðè ïîìîùè îòðèöàòåëüíûõ êîíñòðóêöèé. (Òàáë. 5) Ïðÿìîå îòðèöàíèå. Êîíñòðóêöèÿ ñ ïðÿìûì îòðèöàíèåì ìîæåò çàìåùàòü ýìîöèîíàëüíî îêðàøåííîå ñëîâî êîíñòðóêöèè óòâåðäèòåëüíîé; â òàêèõ ñëó÷àÿõ ïîäáèðàåòñÿ áîëåå íåéòðàëüíûé åãî ñèíîíèì, à çíà÷åíèå ïîäðàçóìåâàåìîãî (understatement) âû- Ñòðàòåãèè íàìåêà 33 âîäèòñÿ èç êîíòåêñòà, ïîñêîëüêó åãî íåëüçÿ îäíîçíà÷íî îïðåäåëèòü ïóòåì çàìåíû ñèíîíèìè÷íûì îáîðîòîì èëè “ìåõàíè÷åñêîé” ïîäñòàíîâêè ñëîâà ñ ïðîòèâîïîëîæíûì çíà÷åíèåì (êàê, íàïðèìåð: I’m not amused ìîæíî òðàêòîâàòü êàê I’m bored / displeased / tired è ïð.): She can’t help watching TV for hours (=She is a TV addict); We are not on friendly / speaking terms with them. (=We are enemies). Îòðèöàòåëüíûå êîíñòðóêöèè ÷àñòî îïèðàþòñÿ íà èñïîëüçîâàíèå ìîäèôèêàòîðîâ ñòåïåíè òèïà very, too, particularly, quite è ìîäèôèêàòîðîâ îïðåäåëåííîñòè (ñëîâ íåîïðåäåëåííîãî çíà÷åíèÿ) òèïà anything, anywhere è ò.ï., ñíèæàþùèìè îòðèöàòåëüíûé ýôôåêò: I’m not particularly fond of snakes. (ñð.: I’m not fond of snakes =I’m afraid of snakes). She is not too happy about it. (ñð.: She is not happy... = She is unhappy / miserable etc.) Èëè îòðèöàíèå ìîæåò áûòü ïåðåíåñåíî íà ãëàãîë ìûøëåíèÿ: I don’t suppose it’s right. (ñð.: I suppose it’s not right. = It is all wrong). Òàêîãî ðîäà ôðàçû íåçàìåíèìû ïðè âûðàæåíèè íåãàòèâíîãî îòíîøåíèÿ, æàëîá, îáúÿñíåíèé, èçâèíåíèé è äð., íàïðèìåð, ÷òîáû, ñêàæåì, âî âðåìÿ âàæíîé âñòðå÷è èëè íà ýêçàìåíå íå òåðÿòü ëèöî, ïîïðîñòó ãîâîðÿ: I don’t understand, ìîæíî ñ óñïåõîì âîñïîëüçîâàòüñÿ understatement: Sorry, but I’m not quite clear on... èëè æå âûðàçèòü ñâîå íåñîãëàñèå ïðè ïîìîùè ôîðìóë òèïà I’m not sure I quite agree/I don’t quite see it the same way/I don’t think it’s quite that simple. (Òàáë. 6) Таблица 5 Техника прямого отрицания Explicit Negation Functions attitude greeting dislike disagreeing disagreeing offer statement Understatement I’m not pleased with his manners. How are you? – Not so well, thank you. I’m not particularly keen on TV. It is not quite that easy; you see... I don’t think I could quite agree with it. I don’t suppose you’ll accept my offer. He didn’t tell me anything about it. Statement (= I’m definitely disgusted) I’m not well (= I am ill) I’m not keen on TV (= I hate TV) It is not easy (= It is very difficult) I think I can’t fully agree (= I disagree) I suppose you’ll not accept it (I hope you will) He told me nothing about it. 34 Ëåêöèÿ ¹ 3 Ñêðûòîå îòðèöàíèå ìîæåò âûðàæàòüñÿ íåÿâíî â óòâåðäèòåëüíûõ ïðåäëîæåíèÿõ ïóòåì çàìåíû ïðÿìîãî îòðèöàíèÿ, íàïðèìåð, íàðå÷èÿìè íåãàòèâíîãî çíà÷åíèÿ, òèïà hardly, barely, scarcely, íàðå÷èÿìè ìèíèìèçèðóþùåãî çíà÷åíèÿ (few, little) èëè ñîîòâåòñòâóþùèìè ãëàãîëàìè è ïðè÷àñòèÿìè òèïà fail, lack è ïð. Íàïðèìåð: He barely touched his drink (Ñð.: He didn’t touch his drink =He drank nothing); His contribution could hardly be underestimated (Ñð.: His contribution could not be underestimated = It is highly praised); The author failed to mention these facts. = The author did not mention these facts. Êîãäà ñëîâà íåãàòèâíîãî çíà÷åíèÿ, íàïðèìåð ñ îòðèöàòåëüíûìè ïðèñòàâêàìè èëè ñ ïðåäëîãàìè, óïîòðåáëÿþòñÿ â îòðèöàòåëüíîì ïðåäëîæåíèè, âîçíèêàåò êàê áû äâîéíîå îòðèöàíèå: Our new director doesn’t look unfriendly, he is not likely to be devoid of human weaknesses (He looks friendly and human).  ðóññêîì ÿçûêå èìåþòñÿ ñõîäíûå ñðåäñòâà äëÿ ñìÿã÷åíèÿ îòðèöàíèÿ, íàïðèìåð íåáåçûíòåðåñíàÿ íîâîñòü = èíòåðåñíàÿ (ñð. òàêæå íàðå÷èÿ íå îñîáåííî, íå âïîëíå, íå ñëèøêîì, ïî÷òè íå, ÷óòü, åäâà, ìàëî, èëè ãëàãîëû è ïðè÷àñòèÿ òèïà íåäîñòàâàòü, ëèøåííûé è ïð. Îäíàêî ïðè âûðàæåíèè íåãàòèâíîãî îòíîøåíèÿ èëè îöåíêè äëÿ ðóññêîãî ÿçûêà áîëåå õàðàêòåðíà ïðÿìîòà (ñð. ß íå ìîãó íå ñìîòðåòü = ÿ ñìîòðþ; åñëè êíèãà íåìíîãî íåèíòåðåñíà – îíà ïîïðîñòó ñêó÷íà, à êîãäà ÷òî-òî íå íåâîçìîæíî, çíà÷èò, îíî âîçìîæíî). Òàêèì îáðàçîì, â ðóññêîì ÿçûêå ÷àñòîòíîñòü è öåëåíàïðàâëåííîå óïîòðåáëåíèå àíàëîãè÷íûõ ñðåäñòâ äëÿ ñìÿã÷åíèÿ ïðÿìîòû âûñêàçûâàíèÿ â çíà÷èòåëüíîé ìåðå îòëè÷íû îò èõ ôóíêöèîíèðîТаблица 6 Техника скрытого и двойного отрицания Implicit and Double Negation Functions statement statement criticising criticising statement opinion Understatement Statement He’s got little idea how engines work. He’s got no idea how engines work. I hardly ever speak in public. I never speak in public. He lacks courage to give it up. He doesn’t have courage to give it up. His plan is not devoid of drawbacks. His plan is full of drawbacks. It is not impossible. It is possible. He’s not without pretensions. He has (many) pretensions. Ñòðàòåãèè íàìåêà 35 Таблица 7 Стратегия намёка стратегия намёк (Understatement) òàêòèêè ðåãóëÿöèÿ çíà÷èìîñòè îòðèöàíèå êàê íàì¸ê òåõíèêè ìèíèìèçàöèÿ çíà÷èìîñòè èñïîëüçîâàíèå ïðÿìîãî îòðèöàíèÿ ñíèæåíèå îïðåäåëåííîñòè ñêðûòîå è äâîéíîå îòðèöàíèå âàíèÿ â àíãëèéñêîì ÿçûêå.  öåëîì äëÿ ðóññêîÿçû÷íîãî îáùåíèÿ ñòðàòåãèÿ ïðåóìåíüøåíèÿ íå õàðàêòåðíà, ïîñêîëüêó â òðàäèöèÿõ ðóññêîé êîììóíèêàòèâíîé êóëüòóðû âïîëíå äîïóñòèìûì ÿâëÿåòñÿ îòêðûòîå è ñïîíòàííîå ïðîÿâëåíèå ýìîöèé.  àìåðèêàíñêîé êîììóíèêàòèâíîé êóëüòóðå ñòðàòåãèÿ íàì¸êà (understatement) ïîëüçóåòñÿ ñðàâíèòåëüíî íåâûñîêîé ïîïóëÿðíîñòüþ; òàêæå íàáëþäàåòñÿ áîëüøàÿ èìïóëüñèâíîñòü è ýìîöèîíàëüíîñòü êàê îäíî èç ïðîÿâëåíèé èõ ñòðåìëåíèÿ ê îòêðûòîìó è ñâîáîäíîìó ñàìîâûðàæåíèþ ëè÷íîñòè (ïðè ýòîì â ñèòóàöèÿõ íåôîðìàëüíîãî îáùåíèÿ äîïóñêàåòñÿ ïåðåáèâàòü ñîáåñåäíèêà). Ðàññìîòðåííûå òàêòèêè îáîáùåííî ìîæíî ïðåäñòàâèòü ñëåäóþùèì îáðàçîì. (Òàáë. 7) Çàäàíèÿ äëÿ ñàìîïðîâåðêè 1. Render from Russian into English. Different polite variants are possible. 1. Êàê âàì íðàâèòñÿ íàø íîâûé ó÷èòåëü? – ß äóìàþ, îí íè÷åãî. 2. À ÿ áû ñêàçàëà, ÷òî îí ó íàñ â øêîëå íåóìåñòåí. 3. Ó íåãî íåò êîíòàêòà ñ äðóãèìè ó÷èòåëÿìè. 4. Îí âûãëÿäèò ñòàðîìîäíî. 5. Ãîâîðÿò, îí ïåäàíò. 6. Îí ñòðîã â îòíîøåíèè äèñöèïëèíû. 7. Îí íå ëþáèò, êîãäà åìó çàäàþò ìíîãî âîïðîñîâ. 8. Îí êàêîé-òî ñòðàííûé. 9. Îí áóäåò ñòàâèòü îäíè ïëîõèå îòìåòêè. 10. Òû ïðîñòî åãî áîèøüñÿ. 2. Render from Russian into English. Different polite variants are possible. 1. ß ïîíèìàþ, ó âñåõ åñòü íåäîñòàòêè. 2. Íî ÿ âîçìóùåíà îòíîøåíèåì âàøåãî ñûíà ê çàíÿòèÿì. 3. Îí íèêîãäà íå áëèñòàë â àíãëèéñêîì. 4. Âû çíàåòå, ó÷èòü èíîñòðàííûé ÿçûê î÷åíü òðóäíî. 5. Íà ïðîøëîé íåäåëå îí ïðîïóñòèë ïî÷òè âñå çàíÿòèÿ. 6. È îí íå ñäàë íè îäíîãî òåñòà. 36 Ëåêöèÿ ¹ 3 7. À ïåðåä ýêçàìåíîì åìó íå õâàòèëî äóõà ïðèéòè è îáúÿñíèòüñÿ. 8. À â ïèñüìåííîé ðàáîòå ó íåãî ìíîãî ãðóáûõ îøèáîê. 9. Âîçìîæíî, äèðåêòîð äàæå çàõî÷åò åãî èñêëþ÷èòü. 10. Ìîé ñûí íèêîãäà íå ãîâîðèë, ÷òî ó íåãî êàêèå-òî ïðîáëåìû. Ñòðàòåãèè íàìåêà 37 Ëåêöèÿ 4. Ñòðàòåãèè óêëîíåíèÿ Ñòðàòåãèÿ óêëîíåíèÿ ÿâëÿåòñÿ ëîãè÷åñêèì ïðîäîëæåíèåì ïðåäûäóùåé è îñîáî âûäåëÿåòñÿ (êàê è ñîñòàâëÿþùèå å¸ òàêòèêè) èñêëþ÷èòåëüíî äëÿ óäîáñòâà àíàëèçà è â öåëÿõ å¸ ïðàêòè÷åñêîãî ïðèìåíåíèÿ. Îíà ïðåäïîëàãàåò èñïîëüçîâàíèå îïðåäåëåííîãî íàáîðà ñòðóêòóð – softening devices, ñìÿã÷àþùèõ ðåçêîñòü âûñêàçûâàíèÿ è äåëàþùèõ åãî ìåíåå ïðÿìîëèíåéíûì. Ê íèì îòíîñÿòñÿ ââîäíûå ôðàçû, áåçëè÷íûå ïðåäëîæåíèÿ (â òîì ÷èñëå è ñ âåðîÿòíîñòíûì îòòåíêîì), ôîðìóëû âåæëèâûõ âîïðîñîâ è îòâåòîâ, óòâåðæäåíèÿ â ôîðìå âîïðîñîâ è ïð. Ïðåäñòàâëÿåòñÿ, ÷òî â ðàìêàõ äàííîé ñòðàòåãèè (îòòàëêèâàÿñü îò ëèíãâèñòè÷åñêîãî íàïîëíåíèÿ) ìîæíî – â äîñòàòî÷íîé ìåðå óñëîâíî – âûäåëèòü äâå òàêòèêè: óêëîíåíèå îò îòâåòñòâåííîñòè çà îáúåêòèâíîñòü ñóæäåíèé è èñïîëüçîâàíèå âîïðîñîâ ñ öåëüþ ñìÿã÷åíèÿ êàòåãîðè÷íîñòè èëè ðåçêîñòè âûñêàçûâàíèÿ. Ðàññìîòðèì èõ áîëåå ïîäðîáíî. (Òàáë. 1) Ñìÿã÷åíèå óòâåðæäåíèé ÿâëÿåòñÿ îäíèì èç íåïðåìåííûõ óñëîâèé óêëîí÷èâîãî âåæëèâîãî îáùåíèÿ: âûñêàçûâàåìîå ìíåíèå èëè êðèòè÷åñêîå çàìå÷àíèå, âûðàæàåìîå îòíîøåíèå èëè ñîâåò, êîòîðûå èíà÷å ìîãóò ïðîçâó÷àòü ñëèøêîì êàòåãîðè÷íî èëè ïîêàçàòüñÿ ÷åðåñ÷óð íàçèäàòåëüíûìè, íåîáõîäèìî îáëå÷ü â ñîîòâåòñòâóþùóþ îáîëî÷êó, ÷òîáû íå îáèäåòü àíãëîÿçû÷íîãî ñîáåñåäíèêà, òðåïåòíî îõðàíÿþùåãî ñâîå «ëèöî». Äîñòèãàåòñÿ ýòî ïîñðåäñòâîì óêëîíåíèÿ îò îòâåòñòâåííîñòè çà îáúåêòèâíîñòü âûñêàçûâàåìîãî äâîÿêèì îáðàçîì. Ìîæíî, âî-ïåðâûõ, ïîä÷åðêíóòü âåñîìîñòü ñîáñòâåííîãî ìíåíèÿ – ïðè ýòîì ãîâîðÿùèé êàê áû ïðèíèìàåò íà ñåáÿ îòâåòñòâåííîñòü çà ñâîè ñëîâà (personalising), ñóáúåêòèâèðóÿ ñâîþ òî÷êó çðåíèÿ ïðè ïîìîùè ñðåäñòâ ñóáúåêòèâíîé ìîäàëüíîñòè, ïîä÷¸ðêèâàþùèõ ëè÷íîå îòíîøåíèå. Èëè æå, íàîáîðîò, ìîæíî ïåðåíåñòè àêöåíò íà îáùåïðèíÿòîå ìíåíèå – èñïîëüçóÿ, íàïðèìåð, ìîäàëüíûå ìîäèôèêàòîðû, îðèåíòèðîâàííûå íà ñëóøàþùåãî, êîíñòðóêöèè ïàññèâíîãî çàëîãà, êàê áû âûâîäÿùèå àäðåñàòà èç ñèòóàТаблица 1 Тактика уклонения (смягчение утверждений) Softening Statements Softening Devices opinion phrases probability phrases general statements Functions e.g.: attitude, advice, opinion 38 Ëåêöèÿ ¹ 3 öèè, áåçëè÷íûå è íåîïðåäåëåííî-ëè÷íûå ïðåäëîæåíèÿ îáîáùàþùåãî è âåðîÿòíîñòíîãî õàðàêòåðà, ïðèçâàííûå ñêðûòü îòíîøåíèå ãîâîðÿùåãî. Òàêèì îáðàçîì, ìîæíî ãîâîðèòü îá èñïîëüçîâàíèè äâóõ òåõíèê ïðîòèâîïîëîæíîé íàïðàâëåííîñòè, îáúåäèíåííûõ ïðàãìàòè÷åñêîé óñòàíîâêîé íà ñìÿã÷åíèå êàòåãîðè÷íîñòè óòâåðæäåíèé âî èçáåæàíèå êîíôëèêòà. (Òàáë. 2) Ñìÿã÷èòü ñîâåò èëè ìíåíèå ìîæíî ïðè ïîìîùè ñðåäñòâ ñóáúåêòèâíîé ìîäàëüíîñòè: ââîäíûõ ïðåäëîæåíèé è óñòîé÷èâûõ îáîðîòîâ, ïîçâîëÿþùèõ ðàññòàâèòü àêöåíòû òàê, ÷òîáû óòâåðæäåíèå öåíòðèðîâàëîñü íà ãîâîðÿùåì è âîñïðèíèìàëîñü ïðîñòî êàê åãî ëè÷íàÿ òî÷êà çðåíèÿ – íå áîëåå, êîòîðóþ ñîáåñåäíèêè âîëüíû ïðèíÿòü èëè îñïîðèòü. Ïðåäñòàâëåíèå â òàêîé ôîðìå ìîæåò çíà÷èòåëüíî ñíèçèòü ñòåïåíü âîçäåéñòâèÿ íà ñîáåñåäíèêà (íàïðèìåð, îáÿçàòåëüíîñòè ñëåäîâàíèÿ ñîâåòó). Íàáîð òàêèõ ñìÿã÷àþùèõ ñðåäñòâ äîñòàòî÷íî ðàçíîîáðàçåí è âàðüèðóåòñÿ â çàâèñèìîñòè îò ñòåïåíè ôîðìàëüíîñòè îáùåíèÿ. Ê íèì ïðåæäå âñåãî îòíîñÿòñÿ êëèøå äëÿ âûðàæåíèÿ ìíåíèÿ (opinion phrases): mind/view phrases to my mind; in my opinion/view; from my point of view, etc. as- phrases as far as I know; as far as I’m concerned; as I see it; as for me, etc. if- phrases forgive me if I’m wrong; if I’m not mistaken; if you ask me, etc. Ñð.: This design is no longer used. – Forgive me if I’m wrong, but as far as I know this design is no longer in use (formal). If you ask me, this design is no longer used (informal). Ðåçêîå èëè íåãàòèâíîå îòíîøåíèå ìîæíî òàêæå ñóáúåêòèâèðîâàòü, ñíÿâ ñ ñåáÿ îòâåòñòâåííîñòü çà îáúåêòèâíîñòü âûñêàçûâàåìîãî ñóæäåíèÿ: ïðè ïîìîùè ìîäàëüíûõ ìîäèôèêàòîðîâ, öåíòðèðîâàííûõ íà ãîâîðÿùåì, ìîæíî «ñïðÿòàòü» îöåíêó çà ãëàãîëàìè ìûøëåíèÿ: think, feel, guess (Am.E), reckon (à òàêæå â óñëîâíîì íàêëîíåíèè (ñð. âûøå: I’d like to-phrases) è ãëàãîëàìè ãîâîðåíèÿ: say, mention, point out, etc. Äîìèíàíòîé âûðàæàåìîãî íàìåðåíèÿ â òàêèõ ñëó÷àÿõ ñòàíîâèòñÿ òî, ÷òî ãîâîðÿùèé íå ïðåòåíäóåò íà ïîëíóþ äîñòîâåð- Ñòðàòåãèè íàìåêà 39 Таблица 2 Техника представления суждения как личного мнения “Personalising” Opinions Functions Indirect opinion In my opinion it would be better to postpone the meeting. attitude As far as I know to find the right decision is not that simple. remembering If I’ m not mistaken, the matter was highlighted in Issues #2 . explaining I’d like to mention that it has been discussed time and again. opinion I reckon/guess she’s the last person to ask for compassion. opinion Personally, I (don’t) feel you’re making the best choice. Direct It is... (without opening phrases) íîñòü è åãî ñëîâà – âñåãî ëèøü åãî ñóáúåêòèâíîå ìíåíèå, êîòîðîå â òàêèõ êîíñòðóêöèÿõ çâó÷èò ìåíåå êàòåãîðè÷íî èëè äîãìàòè÷íî. Ñð.: There are disadvantages in this approach. – I’d like to point out that there are a few disadvantages in this approach. (formal). I’d just like to say that I think something is wrong with it (informal). Ýôôåêò äîïîëíèòåëüíîãî ñìÿã÷åíèÿ ìîæíî ñîçäàòü ïðè ïîìîùè ñîîòâåòñòâóþùèõ ââîäíûõ ñëîâ (fillers èëè parentheticals): Well, personally I sort of think you ought to try again, really. Ñëåäóåò îòìåòèòü, ÷òî ïðè íàëè÷èè â îáîèõ ÿçûêàõ ïðèìåðíî ýêâèâàëåíòíîãî íàáîðà äåæóðíûõ âûðàæåíèé áðèòàíöû îáðàùàþòñÿ ê ýòèì êëèøå ãîðàçäî ÷àùå, ÷åì ýòî äåëàþò â àíàëîãè÷íûõ ðå÷åâûõ ñèòóàöèÿõ ðîññèÿíå, êîòîðûì, êàê óæå îòìå÷àëîñü, íå ñâîéñòâåííî ïîñòîÿííî çàáîòèòüñÿ î ñìÿã÷åíèè (ñëîâåñíîì) ïðîèçâîäèìîãî ýôôåêòà. Îäíàêî â èñïîëüçîâàíèè äàííûõ ðå÷åâûõ ñðåäñòâ íåîáõîäèìî ðàçâèâàòü ÷óâñòâî ìåðû; îñîáåííî ýòî ìîæíî îòíåñòè ê âñòðå÷àþùåìóñÿ ó ðîññèÿí ïðèñòðàñòèþ ê îáîðîòàì to my mind, it seems to me (ïî àíàëîãèè ñ ðàñïðîñòðàíåííûì íåéòðàëüíûì ðóñ. ìíå êàæåòñÿ; ñð. It seems that), íå âïîëíå åñòåñòâåííûì äëÿ íåôîðìàëüíîé áåñåäû íà àíãëèéñêîì. Äëÿ ïîâñåäíåâíîãî îáùåíèÿ õàðàêòåðíû ââîäíûå ôðàçû òèïà I think, òîãäà êàê òàê íàçûâàåìûå opinion- è as-phrases ÷àùå èñïîëüçóþòñÿ â ñâî¸ì ïðÿìîì çíà÷åíèè â äèñêóññèÿõ è â ñèòóàöèÿõ ôîðìàëüíîãî îáùåíèÿ. 40 Ëåêöèÿ ¹ 4 Âûðàæåíèå ñóæäåíèÿ êàê ëè÷íîãî ìíåíèÿ íåðåäêî èñïîëüçóåòñÿ òàêæå äëÿ ñîçäàíèÿ ýôôåêòà âûðàçèòåëüíîñòè, îòêðûòîñòè è ëè÷íîé âîâëå÷¸ííîñòè (îñîáåííî õàðàêòåðíîé äëÿ ñèòóàöèé íåôîðìàëüíîãî îáùåíèÿ). Ïî ìíåíèþ çàðóáåæíûõ èññëåäîâàòåëåé, äëÿ àìåðèêàíöåâ ýòî ÿâëÿåòñÿ òàêæå îòðàæåíèåì ñòðåìëåíèÿ ê ðàâåíñòâó, êîãäà ãîâîðÿùèé â ðàâíîé ìåðå áåð¸ò íà ñåáÿ îòâåòñòâåííîñòü çà òî, ÷òî ãîâîðèò, è òî, ÷òî ñëûøèò â îòâåò, è â ñëó÷àå êîíôëèêòà ìîæåò íàïðÿìóþ âûðàæàòü è îòñòàèâàòü ñâîþ òî÷êó çðåíèÿ. Ïðè ýòîì âîçìîæíûå ôîðìû «ÿ-âûñêàçûâàíèé» ïðåäïî÷òèòåëüíåå, ÷åì «òû/âû-âûñêàçûâàíèÿ» (ñ òî÷êè çðåíèÿ «ïåðåêëàäûâàíèÿ» îòâåòñòâåííîñòè íà äðóãîãî). Ñð.: I want / need to talk more / I’ve got more to say (I-message) You ignore me / You don’t ask my opinion (you-message). Ëþáîïûòíî ïðè ýòîì, ÷òî, íåñìîòðÿ íà òðåáîâàíèå ïðèíÿòèÿ îòâåòñòâåííîñòè çà ñâîè ìûñëè è ÷óâñòâà è îòêðûòîñòè â îáùåíèè, ðå÷ü èä¸ò ïðåæäå âñåãî î ÷èñòî âíåøíåé âîâëå÷¸ííîñòè è àêòèâíîñòè ïðè îòñòàèâàíèè ñâîåãî ìíåíèÿ, ïîñêîëüêó ó÷àñòíèêè áåñåäû, ïî ìíåíèþ àìåðèêàíñêèõ ó÷¸íûõ, “play the game instead of just watching it as spectators”, ÷òî ëèøíèé ðàç äåìîíñòðèðóåò âûðàæåííóþ ïðàãìàòè÷åñêóþ íàïðàâëåííîñòü è àêöåíòóàöèþ ôîðìàëüíîé ñòîðîíû àíãëîÿçû÷íîãî îáùåíèÿ. Ïîêàçàòåëüíî, ÷òî äëÿ àíãëîÿçû÷íûõ êîììóíèêàíòîâ çíà÷èìî ïðîòèâîïîñòàâëåíèå ïî õàðàêòåðó ó÷àñòèÿ â îáùåíèè: «ó÷àñòíèê – ñòîðîííèé íàáëþäàòåëü», òîãäà êàê äëÿ ðóññêèõ – ïî õàðàêòåðó îòíîøåíèÿ ê îáùåíèþ: «ôîðìàëüíîå – íåôîðìàëüíîå». (Òàáë. 3) Âûñêàçûâàÿ ëè÷íîå ìíåíèå, îñîáåííî êðèòè÷åñêîå, ìîæíî èçáåæàòü îïàñíîñòè âûïÿòèòü ñâîå “ÿ”, åñëè çàìàñêèðîâàòü åãî áåçëè÷íûì ïðåäëîæåíèåì (÷àñòî ñ òåìè æå ãëàãîëàìè ãîâîðåíèÿ), ïðèäàþùèì âûðàæàåìîìó îòíîøåíèþ õàðàêòåð îáîáùåíèÿ, èëè ïðåïîäíåñòè êàê îáùåèçâåñòíûé ôàêò (common knowledge). Ýòèì ïðèåìîì óäîáíî ïîëüçîâàòüñÿ â òåõ ñëó÷àÿõ, êîãäà íåîáõîäèìî, ÷òîáû ëè÷íàÿ òî÷êà çðåíèÿ çâó÷àëà ìåíåå äîãìàòè÷íî: íàïðèìåð, äàâàÿ ñîâåò, ïðîÿâëÿÿ ñêðîìíîñòü ïî ïîâîäó êàêèõ-ëèáî î÷åâèäíûõ ñâîèõ çàñëóã, ñêðûâàÿ íåóâåðåííîñòü. Ñð.: Coming late is impolite. – It is well known / They say that coming late is impolite. Ïàññèâíûé çàëîã, ÷àñòî âñòðå÷àþùèéñÿ â èíñòðóêöèÿõ, ïðèêàçàõ è çàïðåòàõ, òàêæå ðåàëèçóåò òàêòèêó óêëîíåíèÿ, ïîçâîëÿÿ âûâåñòè àäðåñàòà èç ñèòóàöèè, ïðåäñòàâëÿÿ îæèäàåìîå îò íåãî äåéñòâèå íå êàê åãî ïðÿìóþ îáÿçàííîñòü, à êàê îáùåïðèíÿòîå ïðàâèëî, íåîáõîäèìîñòü âûïîëíåíèÿ êîòîðîãî î÷åâèäíà äëÿ Ñòðàòåãèè óêëîíåíèÿ 41 Таблица 3 Техника представления суждения как обобщения Generalising and Probability Phrases Functions advice Indirect It is well known that language learning takes time. Direct I know it well. prohibition This car is parked on a double yellow line. You parked illegally. order English is spoken here. Don’t speak Russian. attitude They say it’s not a proper way to treat animals. It’s not a proper way to treat animals. complaint It appears that our lunch is likely to be delayed. Our lunch is delayed. criticism You happen to be mistaken, he seems to have won. You are mistaken, he has won. prohibition You are not supposed to walk your dog here. You shouldn’t walk your dog here. hesitation I don’t know for sure. One can’t know for sure, it depends on many things. çàêîíîïîñëóøíûõ áðèòàíöåâ è àìåðèêàíöåâ. Òàêàÿ ôîðìà ïîçâîëÿåò èçáåæàòü íåïîñðåäñòâåííîãî äàâëåíèÿ è ñîáëþñòè ïðèëè÷èÿ. Ñìÿã÷àþùèé ýôôåêò èìåþò òàêæå è ðàçëè÷íûå ñëîâà ñî çíà÷åíèåì âåðîÿòíîñòè: maybe, perhaps, by (any) chance, happen/ seem/ prove/ turn out /appear/ (un) likely è ïð., êîòîðûå ìîæíî èñïîëüçîâàòü êàê â ëè÷íûõ, òàê è â áåçëè÷íûõ ïðåäëîæåíèÿõ, ÷òîáû, íàïðèìåð, ïðèäàòü æàëîáå èëè èçâèíåíèþ, îáúÿñíåíèþ èëè êðèòè÷åñêîìó çàìå÷àíèþ îòòåíîê ïðåäïîëàãàåìîé âîçìîæíîñòè: This teaching method is inefficient. – It is widely accepted that this teaching method proved to be inefficient. He’s late. – I feel he’ll most possibly be late. Ïàññèâíûé çàëîã (íàïðèìåð, â êîíñòðóêöèÿõ ñ to be supposed to) òàêæå íåðåäêî èñïîëüçóåòñÿ äëÿ ñìÿã÷åíèÿ êàòåãîðè÷íîñòè çàïðåòîâ è ïðèêàçîâ. Ñð.: You are not supposed to use dictionaries. – Don’t use dictionaries! Áðèòàíöû èíîãäà ïðèáåãàþò ê îáîáùåíèÿì, äàæå ðåàãèðóÿ íà ôîðìóëû âåæëèâîñòè, îíè èñïîëüçóþò ïðè îòâåòå íåîïðåäåëåííîëè÷íîå ìåñòîèìåíèå one, ÷òî èìååò ñìÿã÷àþùèé ýôôåêò è îäíîâðåìåííî ïîçâîëÿåò äèñòàíöèðîâàòüñÿ îò ñîáåñåäíèêà. Ñð.: How are you? – One mustn’t grumble. 42 Ëåêöèÿ ¹ 4 Таблица 4 Тактика смягчения посредством вопросов Softening with Questions Types of Questions persuasive general: negative a) negative Functions declarative: tag: a) negative a) negative b) affirmative b) affirmative b) affirmative e.g.: suggestion, (pressing) offer, asking for information, agreement opinion, request, advice, order Ñëåäóåò, îäíàêî, ïîìíèòü, ÷òî îáîáùåíèå êàê ïðè¸ì áîëåå õàðàêòåðíî äëÿ ïèñüìåííîé è íàó÷íîé ðå÷è (ýòî ïðåæäå âñåãî êàñàåòñÿ áåçëè÷íûõ è íåîïðåäåëåííî-ëè÷íûõ ïðåäëîæåíèé); â ðàçãîâîðíîé æå ðå÷è åãî ðåêîìåíäóåòñÿ èñïîëüçîâàòü â óìåðåííûõ äîçàõ (ðàâíî êàê è óïîòðåáëåíèå ìåñòîèìåíèÿ one íå ÿâëÿåòñÿ ñòèëèñòè÷åñêè íåéòðàëüíûì è òèïè÷íî äëÿ ïðåäñòàâèòåëåé âûñøèõ ñëî¸â îáùåñòâà). (Òàáë. 4) Åñëè â ðóññêîé êîììóíèêàòèâíîé êóëüòóðå âîïðîñ, êàê ïðàâèëî, èìååò öåëüþ ïîëó÷åíèå èíôîðìàöèè, òî â àíãëîÿçû÷íîé òðàäèöèè îí øèðîêî èñïîëüçóåòñÿ êàê ñðåäñòâî ñìÿã÷åíèÿ âûñêàçûâàíèÿ ñ öåëüþ óêëîíåíèÿ îò âûðàæåíèÿ ñâîèõ ìûñëåé íàïðÿìóþ, ïåðåâîäÿ óòâåðæäåíèÿ â áîëåå ìÿãêóþ êîñâåííóþ ôîðìó. Ñ îäíîé ñòîðîíû, ýòî ñïîñîáñòâóåò áåñêîíôëèêòíîìó îáìåíó ìíåíèÿìè è ïîëó÷åíèþ íåîáõîäèìîé èíôîðìàöèè, à ñ äðóãîé – âîïðîñèòåëüíàÿ ôîðìà, êàê Таблица 5 Техника смягчения прямых побудительных высказываний Questions Softening Statements Functions Question (indirect) Statement (direct) advice Why don’t you speak to him directly? invitation Why don’t you come up and have lunch Come up and have lunch with with us? us. pressing offer Why couldn’t we prolong our visit? You should speak to him directly. Let us prolong our visit. suggestion Won’t it be better(for us)to leave at once? We’d better leave at once. opinion Would it be less expensive to go by car? It’d be less expensive to go by car. order Would you like to go on reading? invitation Would you care to stay with us tonight? Stay with us tonight. Go on reading. Ñòðàòåãèè óêëîíåíèÿ 43 áîëåå âåæëèâàÿ, ïîçâîëÿåò ñóùåñòâåííî ñìÿã÷èòü ðåçêîñòü ïðèêàçà, èçáåæàòü íåëîâêîñòè ïðè âûðàæåíèè ïðîñüáû, ïîæåëàíèÿ èëè ñîâåòà. È, íàêîíåö, åù¸ îäíà íåìàëîâàæíàÿ îñîáåííîñòü êîñâåííîé ôîðìû – ýòî ñîçäàíèå äëÿ ñîáåñåäíèêà âèäèìîñòè ïîòåíöèàëüíîãî âûáîðà, îáëåã÷àþùåé âîçìîæíîñòü îòêàçà. Ðàññìîòðèì íåêîòîðûå àñïåêòû ðåàëèçàöèè òàêòèêè îáðàùåíèÿ ê âîïðîñàì ñ öåëüþ ñìÿã÷åíèÿ êàòåãîðè÷íîñòè ïîáóäèòåëüíûõ âûñêàçûâàíèé, ïðåäñòàâëåííûõ â ôîðìå óòâåðæäåíèé è âîïðîñîâ. (Òàáë. 5) Ñïîñîáû ñìÿã÷åíèÿ êàòåãîðè÷íîñòè ïîáóäèòåëüíûõ âûñêàçûâàíèé â àíãëèéñêîì ÿçûêå äîñòàòî÷íî øèðîêî îñâåùåíû â ñïåöèàëüíîé ëèòåðàòóðå1, ïîýòîìó ïðåäñòàâëÿåòñÿ öåëåñîîáðàçíûì îãðàíè÷èòü êðóã ïðèìåðîâ òåìè òèïàìè âîïðîñèòåëüíûõ êîíñòðóêöèé, â êîòîðûõ íàèáîëåå ÿðêî ðåàëèçóåòñÿ ðàññìàòðèâàåìàÿ ñòðàòåãèÿ.  êà÷åñòâå îáîáùåíèÿ ñëåäóåò óêàçàòü, ÷òî ôîðìà âîïðîñà ÿâëÿåòñÿ äëÿ àíãëèéñêèõ äèðåêòèâíûõ è ðåêâåñòèâíûõ âûñêàçûâàíèé áîëåå ðàñïðîñòðàíåííîé è ïðåäïî÷òèòåëüíîé, íåæåëè èìïåðàòèâíàÿ (â îòëè÷èå îò ðóññêèõ), ïîñêîëüêó î÷åâèäíî, ÷òî èìåííî â òàêèõ âûñêàçûâàíèÿõ çàëîæåíà ïîòåíöèàëüíàÿ óãðîçà, ñâÿçàííàÿ ñ âîçìîæíîñòüþ ïîêóøåíèÿ íà ëè÷íîå âðåìÿ è ñâîáîäó äåéñòâèé. Ïðè ýòîì â òðàäèöèÿõ àíãëî-àìåðèêàíñêîé êóëüòóðû, ñ å¸ àêöåíòîì íà íåîáõîäèìîñòè ñîáëþäåíèÿ çàêîíà è ïîðÿäêà, íå ïðèíÿòî ñòàâèòü ïîä ñîìíåíèå êàæóùóþñÿ íåèìïåðàòèâíîñòü îáùåïðèíÿòûõ ïðàâèë, òîãäà êàê äëÿ ðîññèÿí ïðàâî âûáîðà (îñòàâëåííîå ïóñòü ÷èñòî ôîðìàëüíî) ìîæåò ñëóæèòü ïðåäëîãîì íåîáÿçàòåëüíîñòè ïîä÷èíåíèÿ, è òîëüêî ïðÿìîå (âåðáàëüíîå) äàâëåíèå íåðåäêî ÿâëÿåòñÿ êëþ÷îì ê ïîíèìàíèþ ñåðü¸çíîñòè íàìåðåíèÿ ãîâîðÿùåãî.  àíãëèéñêîì ÿçûêå äëÿ ñìÿã÷åíèÿ ïðèêàçàíèé è óòâåðæäåíèé øèðîêî èñïîëüçóþòñÿ why-questions è yes/no questions (îáùèå). Whyquestions óïîòðåáëÿþòñÿ â îòðèöàòåëüíîé ôîðìå, ÷òî ïîìîãàåò ïðèäàòü íàçèäàòåëüíî çâó÷àùåìó ñîâåòó èëè ïðåäëîæåíèþ íåíàâÿç÷èâî-óáåäèòåëüíóþ ôîðìó: Ïî÷åìó áû âàì íå...? Ñð.: You must show it to a specialist. – Why don’t you show it to a specialist? Ñëåäóåò îñîáî îòìåòèòü, ÷òî ïðÿìûå ïðèãëàøåíèÿ òàêæå òðàêòóþòñÿ êàê íàâÿç÷èâûå, è îäíîé èç ðàñïðîñòðàí¸ííûõ ôîðì, ïîçâîëÿþùèõ íå íàðóøàòü privacy, ÿâëÿåòñÿ Why don’t you come…? Îáùèå âîïðîñû òàêæå ïðåäîñòàâëÿþò ñîáåñåäíèêó âîçìîæíîñòü âûáîðà: ñîãëàñèòüñÿ èëè íåò. 1 Íàïðèìåð, â ìîíîãðàôèè Ò.Â. Ëàðèíîé ïðèâîäèòñÿ îáçîð ñîâðåìåííûõ ðàáîò ïî äàííîé òåìå (Ëàðèíà Ò.Â. Êàòåãîðèè âåæëèâîñòè â àíãëèéñêîé è ðóññêîé êîììóíèêàòèâíûõ êóëüòóðàõ. Ì.: ÐÓÄÍ, 2003). 44 Ëåêöèÿ ¹ 4 Ñð.: It would be easier this way. – Wouldn’t it be easier this way? (persuasive question); Would it be easier this way? (open question) ×àñòî èñïîëüçóþòñÿ â òàêèõ ñëó÷àÿõ êîíñòðóêöèè êàê ñ îòðèöàíèåì, òàê è áåç íåãî, ïðè÷¸ì åñëè ôîðìà ïåðâîãî âîïðîñà èìååò îòòåíîê óáåæäåíèÿ, òî ôîðìà ïîñëåäíåãî ÿâëÿåòñÿ áîëåå äèñòàíöèðóþùåé, êàê áû îñòàâëÿÿ âîïðîñ îòêðûòûì. Ïîêàçàòåëüíî, ÷òî ôîðìà áåç îòðèöàíèÿ óïîòðåáëÿåòñÿ ïðè âûðàæåíèè íå òîëüêî âåæëèâîé ïðîñüáû, íî è ïðèêàçà. Ñð.: Can I have a bunch of those flowers? Could I see your tickets? Ïðè ýòîì ñóáúåêòíî-îðèåíòèðîâàííûå âîïðîñû î âîçìîæíîñòè (ñð. Can I) áîëåå âåæëèâû, ÷åì ñóáúåêòíî-îðèåíòèðîâàííûå âîïðîñû-ïîáóæäåíèÿ (ñð. Can you) â ñèëó ñìåùåíèÿ ôîêóñà âíèìàíèÿ è «îòâåòñòâåííîñòè» (ñì. âûøå). Äëÿ ðóññêîÿçû÷íîãî îáùåíèÿ ðàçãðàíè÷åíèÿ ïîäîáíîãî ðîäà íåðåëåâàíòíû, ïîñêîëüêó ñîäåðæàíèå íàìåðåíèÿ îñòàåòñÿ íåèçìåííûì. Ñð.: Òû (íå) ìîã áû äàòü ìíå ñâîé ïîðòôåëü? – Ìîãó ÿ âçÿòü òâîé ïîðòôåëü?  ñâåòå ðàçëè÷èé â ñïîñîáàõ îôîðìëåíèÿ ðóññêèõ è àíãëèéñêèõ äèðåêòèâíûõ âûñêàçûâàíèé ïîêàçàòåëüíû ðåçóëüòàòû îäíîãî àìåðèêàíñêîãî èññëåäîâàíèÿ. Åãî àâòîðà áîëåå âñåãî óäèâèëà ðàñïðîñòðàí¸ííîñòü â ðîññèéñêîé øêîëüíîé àóäèòîðèè òàê íàçûâàåìûõ «ñîâìåñòíûõ äèðåêòèâ» è ñåðèé èìïåðàòèâîâ, êîòîðûå áåç êàêèõëèáî äîïîëíèòåëüíûõ ïîêàçàòåëåé âåæëèâîãî èëè ñìÿã÷àþùåãî òîíà âîñïðèíèìàëèñü êàê íåéòðàëüíûå. (Ïðèìåðîì ïåðâûõ ìîãóò ñëóæèòü âûñêàçûâàíèÿ òàêèå êàê «èòàê, ìû ñ âàìè ñåé÷àñ ïåðåõîäèì ê ãðàììàòèêå è ñäåëàåì íåñêîëüêî óïðàæíåíèé», à âòîðûõ – «òåïåðü ïðî÷èòàéòå, ïðî÷èòàéòå âíèìàòåëüíî… è îòëîæèëè êíèãè».) Ïî êîíòðàñòó ðàáîòà â àìåðèêàíñêîé, îñîáåííî äåòñêîé, àóäèòîðèè îïèðàåòñÿ íà ñòðàòåãèþ «íàì¸êà», ñ õàðàêòåðíûìè äëÿ íåå òàêòèêàìè «óãîâîðà» (öåëüþ êîòîðîãî ÿâëÿåòñÿ äîñòèæåíèå ñâîåãî ðîäà êîìïðîìèññà ïóòåì «ñìåíû íàïðàâëåíèé» è «óñòàíîâëåíèÿ ñäåëîê») è «öåïè èíñòðóêöèé», íàïðèìåð: If you don’t understand, please, raise your hand, and I’ll be around to help (imbedded imperatives); Why don’t you finish your essay first and then you can turn to the new text? (imbedded hints), ïðåäïîëàãàþùèå ìåäëåííî ïðîãðåññèðóþùèé ïåðåõîä îò êîñâåííûõ ê áîëåå ïðÿìûì äèðåêòèâíûì ôîðìàì.2 Ñì. ïîäðîáíåå ñòàòüþ Ì.Ìèëç â ñáîðíèêå “Ðîññèÿ è Çàïàä: äèàëîã êóëüòóð.” Ìîñêâà. ÌÃÓ. 1996. Ñòðàòåãèè óêëîíåíèÿ 45 Âïîëíå çàêîíîìåðíî, ÷òî áîëüøå âñåãî àìåðèêàíñêóþ ïðåïîäàâàòåëüíèöó ïîðàçèë ÿðêî âûðàæåííûé «ìû»-ïîäõîä ê ó÷åíèêàì, ïîñêîëüêó â àíãëèéñêîì ÿçûêå ôîðìà “let’s” (ýêâèâàëåíòíàÿ ðóñ. äàâàéòå) íå ñîçäàåò âèäèìîñòè ïîòåíöèàëüíîãî âûáîðà. Íàïðàâëåííûé íà ñîòðóäíè÷åñòâî è ðàçäåëåíèå îáÿçàííîñòåé ðîññèéñêèé ïîäõîä ðåçêî êîíòðàñòèðóåò ñ ïðèíÿòûì â àíãëî-àìåðèêàíñêîé òðàäèöèè èíäèâèäóàëüíûì, íàöåëåííûì íà ðàçâèòèå àâòîíîìèè ëè÷íîñòè è ñàìîñòîÿòåëüíîñòè (ñð. ïîíÿòèå ëè÷íîé îòâåòñòâåííîñòè). Ïðåäñòàâëÿåòñÿ òàêæå, ÷òî äîñòàòî÷íî ÷àñòî íàáëþäàåìîå óñèëåíèå ðóññêèõ äèðåêòèâíûõ âûñêàçûâàíèé (òèïà ïðîøó âàñ, ïðåêðàòèòå íåìåäëåííî; ýòî íàäî îáÿçàòåëüíî îáñóäèòü; òû íåïðåìåííî äîëæåí çàéòè ê íàì ïîîáåäàòü è ò.ï.) ÿâëÿåòñÿ â ïåðâûõ ñëó÷àÿõ òðàäèöèîííîé àïåëëÿöèåé ê ÷óâñòâó äîëãà, íàïîìèíàíèåì î ìîðàëüíîé îòâåòñòâåííîñòè, à â ñëó÷àå ïðèãëàøåíèÿ ñâèäåòåëüñòâóåò î áîëüøåé ñòåïåíè èñêðåííîñòè íàìåðåíèÿ.  òðàäèöèÿõ ðóññêîé êîììóíèêàòèâíîé êóëüòóðû íå ïðèíÿòî êàìóôëèðîâàòü îòêðîâåííîñòü âîëåèçúÿâëåíèÿ (êàê ýòî îáû÷íî äåëàåòñÿ â àíãëîÿçû÷íîé êîììóíèêàöèè â ñëó÷àÿõ ñìÿã÷åíèÿ ïðàãìàòè÷åñêîãî çíà÷åíèÿ «ÿ õî÷ó, ÷òîáû òû ýòî ñäåëàë»), – ðóññêîå «íàäî» ÿâëÿåòñÿ ñâîåãî ðîäà «ìîðàëüíûì» ðåãóëÿòîðîì, íå âñåãäà è íå îáÿçàòåëüíî òðåáóþùèì ñïåöèàëüíûõ îãîâîðîê. Òàêèì îáðàçîì, ñïåöèôèêà îôîðìëåíèÿ àíãëîÿçû÷íûõ ïîáóæäåíèé â öåëîì ÿâëÿåòñÿ îäíèì èç íàèáîëåå î÷åâèäíûõ ñâèäåòåëüñòâ õàðàêòåðíîãî äëÿ àíãëî-àìåðèêàíñêîé êóëüòóðû ðåãóëÿðíîãî ðàñõîæäåíèÿ ìåæäó ñåìàíòè÷åñêèì è ïðàãìàòè÷åñêèìè çíà÷åíèÿìè, êîòîðîå âîñïðèíèìàåòñÿ íîñèòåëÿìè ÿçûêà êàê íîðìà. (Òàáë. 6) Таблица 6 Техника смягчения побуждений, представленных в форме вопроса Questions Softening Questions Functions Indirect Direct request/offer I don’t suppose you’ll find time for it Will you find time for it now? now? enquiry I suppose you’re very busy now? request/asking You haven’t seen my cat here, have Have you seen my cat here? you? Are you (very) busy now? for information You don’t know where Bells is, do Do you know where Bells is? you? enquiry/asking You are the new teacher, aren’t you? Are you the new teacher? for agreement You do take milk in coffee, don’t Do you take milk in coffee? you? order Carry this bag for me, will you? 2 Will you carry this bag for me? 46 Ëåêöèÿ ¹ 4 Î÷åâèäíî, ÷òî ñìÿã÷åíèþ ïîäëåæàò è ñàìè âîïðîñû, øèðîêî ðàñïðîñòðàíåííûå â ïîáóäèòåëüíûõ ðå÷åâûõ àêòàõ, îñîáåííî êàñàþùèåñÿ íàâåäåíèÿ ñïðàâîê, ïîëó÷åíèÿ èíôîðìàöèè ëè÷íîãî õàðàêòåðà, ïðîñüá è ïð., êîòîðûå èíà÷å çâó÷àò äîñòàòî÷íî ïðÿìîëèíåéíî è áåñöåðåìîííî. Òåõíèêà, èñïîëüçóåìàÿ äëÿ äîïîëíèòåëüíîãî ñìÿã÷åíèÿ âîïðîñèòåëüíûõ âûñêàçûâàíèé òàêîãî ðîäà, îïèðàåòñÿ íà âîïðîñû «äåêëàðàòèâíûå» (statement-questions) è ðàçäåëèòåëüíûå (tag-questions). «Äåêëàðàòèâíûå» âîïðîñû, íå òðàíñôîðìèðóÿ ãðàììàòè÷åñêóþ ôîðìó óòâåðæäåíèÿ, ïðèäàþò åìó âîïðîñèòåëüíî-âåæëèâîå çâó÷àíèå.  çàâèñèìîñòè îò ñèòóàöèè, îñîáåííî êîãäà ïðèõîäèòñÿ âûñòóïàòü â ðîëè ïðîñèòåëÿ, èì ìîæíî ïðèäàòü îòòåíîê áåçíàä¸æíîñòè, ÷òîáû âåðîÿòíûé îòêàç ïðîñòî êàê áû ïîäòâåðæäàë âàøè õóäøèå îæèäàíèÿ – òàêóþ òàêòèêó áðèòàíñêèå ó÷¸íûå Ëåâèíñîí è Áðàóí íàçûâàþò «áóäüòå ïåññèìèñòîì». Äëÿ ýòîé öåëè ïîäõîäèò êàê óòâåðäèòåëüíàÿ, òàê è îòðèöàòåëüíàÿ ôîðìà âîïðîñà (unhopeful statements). Ñð.: Could you find anyone to help us with this task? – I don’t suppose you’d find anyone to help us with this task?/ I suppose you wouldn’t be able to find anyone to help us with this task? Âîïðîñû ñ êîíå÷íûì ôîðìàòèâîì (àíàëîãîì êîòîðûõ â ðóññêîì ÿçûêå ìîæíî ñ÷èòàòü íå òàê ëè? íå ïðàâäà ëè?), òðåáóþùèå íåïîñðåäñòâåííîé ðåàêöèè ñîáåñåäíèêà, ìîæíî èñïîëüçîâàòü è âìåñòî ïðÿìîãî óòâåðæäåíèÿ èëè ïðèêàçà, à òàêæå äëÿ ñìÿã÷åíèÿ ñàìèõ âîïðîñîâ; ïðè ýòîì ñàì ôîðìàòèâ ìîæåò áûòü êàê â óòâåðäèòåëüíîé, òàê è â îòðèöàòåëüíîé ôîðìå. Cð.: So this is your new car. / Is this your new car? – This is your new car, isn’t it? Take it upstairs, please. / Will you take it upstairs? – Take it upstairs, will you?  ðóññêîì ÿçûêå – â ñèëó ñèíòàêñè÷åñêîé ãèáêîñòè âîïðîñèòåëüíîãî ïðåäëîæåíèÿ, íå èìåþùåãî ñòîëü æ¸ñòêî çàêðåïë¸ííîãî ïîðÿäêà ñëîâ, – ó äåêëàðàòèâíûõ âîïðîñîâ åñòü ïðÿìûå àíàëîãè, îñîáåííî â îòðèöàòåëüíîé ôîðìå êàê áîëåå âåæëèâîé. Ñð.: Âû íå ñêàæåòå/Âû âèäåëè...? èëè æå Ó Âàñ (íå)íàéäåòñÿ…?, (Íå)çíàåòå ëè Âû...? è äð. Îäíàêî ïðèãëàãîëüíîå îòðèöàíèå (transferred negation) íå íà- Ñòðàòåãèè óêëîíåíèÿ 47 ñòîëüêî õàðàêòåðíî, è â âûøåïðèâåä¸ííîì ñëó÷àå ðîññèÿíèí ñêîðåå èñïîëüçóåò óòâåðäèòåëüíóþ ôîðìó: ß ïîëàãàþ, Âû î÷åíü çàíÿòû âìåñòî îòðèöàòåëüíîé: ß íå äóìàþ, ÷òî ó Âàñ íàéäåòñÿ âðåìÿ... ×òî æå êàñàåòñÿ ðàçäåëèòåëüíûõ âîïðîñîâ, òî, åñëè âîïðîñû ñ êîíå÷íûì ôîðìàòèâîì â àíãëèéñêîì ÿçûêå îòíîñÿòñÿ ê ÷èñëó íàèáîëåå ðàñïðîñòðàí¸ííûõ, äëÿ ðóññêîãî ÿçûêà îíè ìåíåå õàðàêòåðíû è, ñîîòâåòñòâåííî, íå ñòîëü ÷àñòîòíû. Стратегия уклонения Стратегия уклонения (смягчения) тактика уклонения от ответственности тактика смягчения посредством вопросов техника техника представления техника представления техника смягчения суждения как личного суждения как обобщения прямых побудительных смягчения вопросительных мнения высказываний высказываний Çàäàíèÿ äëÿ ñàìîïðîâåðêè 1. Render from Russian into English. Different polite variants could be possible. 1. Âû äóìàåòå, ó ìîåãî ñûíà ñåðüåçíûå ïðîáëåìû ñ àíãëèéñêèì? 2. Íà ìîé âçãëÿä, îí ìíîãî çàíèìàåòñÿ. 3. Íåïîõîæå ïîêà, ÷òîáû îí äîáèëñÿ êàêîãî-òî óñïåõà. 4. Ëè÷íî ÿ íå äóìàþ, ÷òîáû çäåñü áûëî ÷òî-òî ñåðüåçíîå. 5. Íî âñå æå ìíå êàæåòñÿ, ÷òî-òî íå òàê. 6. Åñëè Âàñ èíòåðåñóåò ìîå ìíåíèå, îí óäåëÿåò çàíÿòèÿì íåäîñòàòî÷íî âðåìåíè. 7. Íåâîçìîæíî âåäü ïîâòîðèòü âåñü ãîäîâîé êóðñ çà íî÷ü ïåðåä ýêçàìåíàìè. 8. Ìîæåò áûòü, ÿ íå ïðàâà, íî ÿ äóìàþ, ïðåæäå âñåãî, åìó íàäî ðàñøèðÿòü ñâîé ñëîâàðíûé çàïàñ. 9. Åñëè íå îøèáàþñü, îí íå ïðî÷åë íè îäíîé êíèãè â îðèãèíàëå. 10. Íà ìîé âçãëÿä, òàêîå îòíîøåíèå ê èçó÷åíèþ ÿçûêîâ âðÿä ëè ìîæíî íàçâàòü ñåðüåçíûì. 2. Render from Russian into English. Different polite variants could be possible. 1. Âû ñåé÷àñ î÷åíü çàíÿòû? 2. Âû ìîæåòå óäåëèòü ìíå íåñêîëüêî ìèíóò? 48 Ëåêöèÿ ¹ 4 3. Âàì ëó÷øå îáðàòèòüñÿ ê Äæåéí, îíà òåïåðü ñåêðåòàðü. 4. Âû íå âèäåëè Äæåéí? 5. Âû íàø íîâûé ñåêðåòàðü? 6. Ó Âàñ åñòü ïàïêà ïðîøëîãîäíèõ îò÷åòîâ? 7. Ìîé àññèñòåíò îòäàë åå Âàì íà ïðîøëîé íåäåëå? 8. Ó Âàñ íå îñòàëîñü åãî êîìïüþòåðíîé âåðñèè? 9. Íàäåæíåå õðàíèòü äîêóìåíòû íà äèñêåòå. 10. Ïîøëèòå ìíå e-mail ñ çàêëþ÷èòåëüíûìè âûâîäàìè. Ñîäåðæàíèå Ëåêöèÿ ¹ 1. Ïðåäïîñûëêè âûäåëåíèÿ ñòðàòåãèé ðå÷åâîãî ïîâåäåíèÿ ........... 3 Ëåêöèÿ ¹ 2. Ñòðàòåãèè äèñòàíöèðîâàíèÿ .......................................................... 18 Ëåêöèÿ ¹ 3. Ñòðàòåãèè íàìåêà .......................................................................... 30 Ëåêöèÿ ¹ 4. Ñòðàòåãèè óêëîíåíèÿ .................................................................... 42