Instructional materials

Диплом http://works.tarefer.ru/64/100359/index.html Все помнят, как в школе нас заставляли заниматься по скучным, морально устаревшим и ветхим библиотечным учебникам. Нашим детям повезло больше. Но вместе с внушительным выбором приходит и чувство растерянности. Как понять, что подойдет именно вашему ребенку? Мы отобрали восемь учебников английского языка для детей и разбили их на две http://www.edb.gov.hk/en/curriculum-development/resource-support/textbook-info/GuidingPrinciples/index.htmlкатегории: пособия для самых юных (6-9 лет) и для подростков (10-15 лет). Instructional materials are essential tools in the English language arts classroom. They allow students to interact with words, images, and ideas in ways that develop their abilities in multiple literacies such as reading, listening, viewing, thinking, speaking, writing, and technology. Because instructional materials are a primary resource for English language arts teachers, they must be selected wisely. The cornerstone of consistent, pedagogically sound selection practices is a clear, written policy for the selection of materials in the English language arts program. Such a policy not only helps teachers to achieve program goals, but also helps schools protect the integrity of programs increasingly under pressure from censors, propagandists, and commercial interests. Because selection policies should reflect local interests and issues and should be consistent with other locally developed policies and curriculum documents, NCTE provides no “boilerplate” to be used as a model by local schools. However, NCTE strongly recommends that English language arts teachers and school boards use the following guidelines to develop or review policies for inclusion of materials in English language arts programs. Selection of instructional materials is part of sound program planning. Needless to say, careful selection is a powerful buffer against challenges because it assures that the program planning process was thoughtful and not haphazard. Criteria Each author should develop its own criteria for selecting materials for inclusion in schools programs. but virtually all criteria relate to two general requirements for selections: materials must (1) have a clear connection to established educational objectives and (2) address the needs of the students for whom they are intended. Connection to Educational Objectives Instructional materials in the English language arts program should align with the general philosophy of the school or district, the curriculum goals and objectives of the English language arts program, and the learning outcomes of the particular course or grade level. For instance, some materials may be included because they reflect the school’s philosophy of encouraging critical thinking in relation to controversial situations and points of view. Or materials may be included because they meet the curriculum objective of presenting articulate voices from different eras or diverse cultures. Or they may be included to address specific learner outcomes, such as understanding how imagery can underscore theme. As an example, Khaled Hossein’s The Kite Runner may serve all of these purposes while Markus Zusak’s The Book Thief may serve only some of them. However, because both of these high quality works have a clear connection to educational objectives of the school, both might be included in the English language arts program. Publishers and policymakers have found it easier than ever to compile national lists of “standards-aligned materials” because of Common Core State Standards (CCSS). While such lists may provide insight and guidance, decision-making about the selection of materials should still be shaped by local goals and objectives. Adoption of such lists may also hinder teacher-generated lessons and materials and rigid adherence to such lists limits the inclusion of timely materials that are often powerful teaching tools for any number of standards. Policies should also reflect the understanding that an English language arts program is not one instructional resource, but many; not one curriculum objective, but several. Therefore, English language arts policies should seek to build a collection of instructional materials that as a whole create balance and emphasis in the curriculum. Clearly, no single textbook or set of instructional materials will meet the curricular goals of presenting various points of view, situations, and styles; addressing diverse ability levels; and representing the contributions of people of diverse religions, ages, races, ethnicity, abilities, and cultures. Nonetheless, the collection of materials in the English language arts program as a whole should address all of these concerns and should emphasize those which teachers, as informed professionals working within the district’s philosophical framework, find particularly important. Finally, materials must be selected with an eye toward coordinating instruction within and between grade levels, courses, and disciplines. For example, students who read or watch Suzanne Collins’ The Hunger Games in social studies, English, and health are getting too much of a good thing. So are the students who reported studying Frost’s “Stopping by the Woods on a Snowy Evening” every year in grades 7-10. By contrast, teachers of junior English cannot draw on students’ shared literary background if teachers at earlier levels have used a potpourri of unarticulated works. This is not an argument for a fixed, lock-step curriculum but for a collegial sharing of goals and ideas for instructional materials as teachers engage in the process of selecting materials. With the adoption and implementation of the CCSS, much emphasis has been placed on the need to use complex texts with students, leading to requirements for selection procedures to incorporate this dimension as an expectation of educational objectives. The concept of increasing text complexity over time is not new to English language arts teachers, while qualification of what is meant by “text complexity” in CCSS terms is new and must be considered. Appendix A of the CCSS attempts to clarify that text complexity should be determined by three “equally important components”: quantitative measures (assessed by readability formulas measuring sentence length and word frequency to assign Lexile or grade levels); qualitative measures (assessed by adults measuring content, structures, knowledge demands, and clarity); and by reader and task considerations (assessed by teachers weighing knowledge of individual readers’ motivation, experiences, background knowledge and considering the complexity of task(s) associated with a text (p. 4, 2010). Misinterpretations about determining text complexity are common, with publishers, state and local policy leaders focusing more heavily on the quantitative dimension and Lexile/Readability levels. Over-dependence on quantitative measures of text complexity is erroneous on behalf of publishers and policy leaders and perilous on behalf of students. Teacher expertise is clearly privileged within the CCSS criteria to make text complexity determinations using qualitative and reader/task considerations and requires the careful deliberation of those selecting materials. Relevance to Student Needs Materials should be examined for level of difficulty. They must be readable if they are to be truly accessible to students. Because readability formulas tend to be simplistic measures, such formulas should be used cautiously, if at all. Teachers’ judgments about the difficulty of a work are more soundly based on complexity of plot, organization, abstractness of the language, familiarity of vocabulary, and clarity of syntax. Also, because the average classroom includes students reading at several levels of proficiency, materials judged as inappropriate for whole-class instruction might be suitable for small-group use or for independent reading by more capable readers. Reading materials which draw upon students’ backgrounds are desirable. Both comprehension and engagement are enhanced when students can activate relevant background knowledge as they read, connecting their personal experiences with vicarious experiences. This does not deny the value of reading about the unfamiliar and even the fantastic. But the relevance of a work to students’ daily lives or to the lives of their imaginations is worthy of consideration in the selection process. “Age-appropriateness” alone is never sufficient reason to include particular materials in the English language arts program; nevertheless, materials should be suited to the maturity level of the students for whom they are intended. Evaluating “age-appropriateness” can be problematic, but legal decisions have provided some guidance in this area. Generally, when courts evaluate the age-appropriateness of material, they do not consider it in isolation. They weigh the value of the material as a whole, particularly its relevance to educational objectives, against the likelihood of a negative impact on the students for whom it is intended. That likelihood is lessened by the exposure the typical student has had to the controversial subject or manner of presentation. A negative impact is also less likely if the typical student of that age is sufficiently mature to view the subject or manner of presentation within the context of the overall purpose of the work. When these mitigating factors exist and the material serves a legitimate pedagogical purpose, courts consider the material age-appropriate. For instance, one court found the overall merit of a particular magazine article to outweigh the potentially negative impact of the author’s repeated use of a profane expression (Keefe v. Geankos, 1969). The court noted that seniors in high school were “not devoid of all discrimination or resistance” and doubted that students of that age had been or could be protected from exposure to such expression. Procedures for Selection of Instructional Materials Good schools, recognizing the importance of support from parents and the community, operate within a framework for democratic decision making. Materials selection and challenged materials policies are important parts of that framework. Well-established procedures for selecting instructional material ensure public involvement and professional guidance. Therefore, it is essential that materials selection policies clearly describe the steps involved in the selection process and the personnel responsible for each step. Responsibility for Selection Selecting materials requires in-depth knowledge: not just of students’ backgrounds and learning experiences, but also of their abilities and interests; not just of educational objectives, but of the best practices and range and quality of materials for meeting them; not just of the particular work being considered, but of its place within the medium, genre, epoch, etc., it represents. In short, responsible selection demands not only the experience and education needed to make sound choices but also the ability to defend the choices made. This level of expertise can be found in the English language arts professional. Therefore, although administrators and school boards are often legally charged with the responsibility of selecting instructional materials, this responsibility should be delegated to English language arts professionals. Selection Procedures Selection procedures may vary in terms of the size of the group, nonteacher participants, and schedules, but certain elements are important. In general, selection is most appropriately done by the English language arts teachers who are closest to the students–that is, by teachers at the building level. The group’s charge must be clearly specified and understood by all. The process should be part of the school’s annual schedule, and adequate time must be set aside for the work at hand. As part of its evaluation process, the selection group should discuss every work under consideration for inclusion, giving extended attention to materials that are likely to be assigned for whole-class use. However, good English language arts programs typically involve classroom libraries and extensive reading lists that individualize and expand student choices. Consequently, selection often makes use of published reviews of materials and opinions of informed peers, including district language arts coordinators, librarians, and leaders in professional associations. All selections should be made on the basis of the materials’ strengths in terms of the selection criteria. Once selections are made, the selection group should be encouraged to maintain a file of written rationales, if only in the form of meeting notes, which explain how selections meet the selection criteria. The selection criteria should be made public in written form. The actual materials selected will become known in due time through course syllabi, booklists circulated to students and parents, and various assignments. But the list of materials can be made available for comments by students, parents, and the public at any time, with the understanding that further informal selection and changes are sometimes made as teachers perceive numerous opportunities during the course of the year to better meet students’ needs through other materials. Opportunity for Informal Selection Creative teachers take advantage of opportunities to use materials which do not lend themselves to the formal selection process e.g., current online newscasts, websites, videos, blogs, e-books, articles, student writing samples, or materials for short-term projects. Such supplemental materials may be selected by the appropriate instructor; but again they must meet the general selection criteria of educational relevance and ability to meet student needs. The following sections describe the main features which characterise quality textbooks. Content (C) A textbook of a particular subject area manifests or translates the four components of the curriculum (aims, content, learning/teaching strategies, assessment) for the purpose of student learning. C - 1 The aims, targets and objectives align with those laid down in the relevant curriculum or subject guide. C - 2 The content is self-contained and sufficient to address effectively the learning targets of the curriculum without requiring the use of additional supplementary materials associated with the textbooks. The core elements of the subject curriculum are included. No superfluous information is covered, in order to leave room for students to learn how to learn. If the materials included are non-core, non-foundation topics or serve for enrichment only, they should be properly indicated. C - 3 The content is current. Information and data are relevant and accurate. The sources of information are appropriately indicated. C - 4 Concepts are correct and precise. Ideas are coherent. There are adequate examples and illustrations. Such examples and illustrations are interesting and relevant to students’ experience. In the development of concepts, new ones are built on old ones and are introduced when and where appropriate. C - 5 There is an appropriate balance between depth and breadth in the treatment of the subject content. C - 6 The level of difficulty of the content is consistent with the curriculum requirements and the cognitive level of students. C - 7 Appropriate consideration is given to students’ prior knowledge and learning experience. There is continuity in the development of concepts and skills to facilitate a smooth transition between different key stages of learning / year levels. Connections between related topics or concepts are highlighted. There is no unnecessary repetition in content. C - 8 There are multiple perspectives and balanced viewpoints on issues. C - 9 There is no bias in content, such as over-generalisation and stereotyping. The content and illustrations do not carry any form of discrimination on the grounds of gender, age, race, religion, culture, disability etc., nor do they suggest exclusion. C - 10 To encourage and facilitate students to read larger amounts of materials on their own, selected further reading lists or related websites are included to let students read extensively. An index is included to make easy reference. Structure and Organisation (S/O) An appropriate structure of the content is provided to facilitate learning. S/O - 1 The content sequence is appropriate and logical. Key words and concepts are identified and highlighted. S/O - 2 The structure of the content is made apparent by means of functional devices including table of contents, chapter titles, headings and outlines. S/O - 3 An overview of the learning targets can be put at the beginning and a summary at the end of each unit of study / chapter / module. A simple student’s guide can be put in an introductory section to teach students how to use the textbook. Language (L) Textbooks are important sources of reading for students. The amount and quality of texts to be included therefore deserves attention. L - 1 The texts are of high quality and facilitate students to learn directly and independently from them, and construct meaning on their own (i.e. read to learn). The level of difficulty of the language is commensurate with the language ability of the target students, with new vocabulary progressively introduced in context at appropriate times. L - 2 Coherent passages are included to help students process text content. L - 3 Students are provided with opportunities to make good use of language to study the subject, i.e. to use reading, writing, listening and speaking as tools to discover, clarify and extend meaning for constructing knowledge in a given subject. L - 4 Familiar and interesting language is used to motivate learning and understanding. The text connects with students’ prior knowledge, for example, by including analogies and examples that are familiar to students’ experience.. L - 5 The language is accurate and precise. L - 6 Students are provided with help in understanding and using the vocabulary and specific patterns of discourse of the subject. Textbook Layout (TL) – for printed textbooks only TL - 1 The layout is logical and consistent. The materials are well-organised, with appropriate use of space and margin for ease of reading, but avoiding unnecessary use of blank space. TL - 2 Illustrations such as photographs, pictures and graphs are accurate, appropriate, effective and suitably annotated to stimulate and facilitate learning. They serve to direct students to the instructional focus rather than distract them from it. A number of factors come into play to make the graphics useful for learning. Specifically, the graphics are relevant to the text. Photographs and illustrations are not just added to lighten up the presentation. Their reference to the text is obvious, either through direct cueing or proximity to the relevant text segment; the sequencing of the graphics is appropriate to show a developmental process; and an appropriate balance is struck between text and graphics. TL - 3 To help reduce the weight of textbooks, lightweight paper is used. Textbooks can be separated into a few thin volumes, printed in separate modules or bound in loose-leaves. This can help develop in students the ability to manage information as part of their learning. They are thin and compact in size. The relative ease of completion can help create a sense of satisfaction in students. TL - 4 The design facilitates the reuse of textbooks. For example, materials for one-off use (e.g. stickers that can be used only once) and tearing off pages from the textbook should be avoided as far as possible. The sources of figures and statistics, etc. are appropriately indicated so that students can search for the most up-to-date information if necessary. TL - 5 The font type is one that is commonly used. To avoid confusion, the font type and font size are consistent throughout the textbooks. Based on the “Eyecare” Circular issued by the former Education Department (now the Education Bureau), the minimum font size is equivalent to font size 12 in “Microsoft Word” for legibility. However, in order to avoid eye strain and for more comfort of reading, larger size fonts are recommended, especially for lower levels. Concluding Remarks 9. Knowledge transmission alone is no longer adequate, as the realm of knowledge is infinite. Providing students with knowledge alone is inadequate. Rather, we have to equip them with a repertoire of skills for acquiring and building up knowledge and instil in them a positive attitude for life-long learning. 10. Textbooks play an important role in supporting learning and teaching in schools. Textbooks should enable students to learn how to make use of different ways of learning. They should also provide an appropriate amount of quality texts for students to “read to learn” independently. It is also important to ensure that there is no excessive information in order to leave room for students to learn how to learn. Students will then have opportunities for developing diverse skills of learning according to their interests, needs and abilities. 11. The Guiding Principles listed above cover the major criteria for selecting, writing and evaluating quality textbooks. Further details and examples specific to different KLA / subject curricula can be found in the relevant curriculum or subject guides, or subject-specific textbook guidelines where appropriate.